Relevance: Stratification and Mobility: Concepts- equality, inequality, hierarchy, exclusion, poverty and deprivation. Dimensions – Social stratification of class, status groups, gender, ethnicity and race.
Why it happens
Child marriage is a complex issue. It is rooted in gender inequality and the belief that girls and women are inferior to boys and men. It is made worse by poverty, lack of education, harmful social norms and practices, and insecurity. Its drivers vary between communities and it looks different across – and within – regions and countries.
Gender inequality
Gender inequality means that women and girls are treated as second-class citizens, denied their human rights and valued less because of their sex.
Child marriage is one expression of this gender inequality.
Patriarchal systems – that is, systems that are controlled by men – that value girls according to their virginity lead to limits on female sexuality and reproductive choices. This can mean controlling how a girl behaves and dresses, where she goes, who she sees, and if, who and when she marries.
It can also criminalise her sexuality and block her access to care and information.
In many places, girls who have relationships or become pregnant outside of marriage are shamed for bringing dishonour on their family, [1] or even stopped from going to school. In such circumstances, parents may see early marriage as a way to protect their daughters and their families. Girls may agree, and wish to gain status as a wife and mother.
Social norms and practices
Social norms are informal rules of behaviour in a group. People follow them to show they are members of the group, because of social pressure or coercion by power holders, or because it’s what they’ve always done.
Social norms are often gendered and aim to control women and girls’ sexuality, and maintain longstanding practices. Child marriage is one such practice. In many places, it has happened for generations and has become normal and accepted.
In some contexts, a girl becomes a woman when she starts to menstruate. Marriage may be the next step towards her gaining status as a wife and mother.
Harmful practices can be linked to each other. In some places, child marriage follows female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C), which is considered a rite of passage to womanhood and a way to increase a girl’s marriageability.
Poverty
Nearly 40% of girls in the world’s poorest countries are married as children, twice the global average.
When experiencing acute poverty, families – and sometimes girls themselves – see marriage as a way to reduce family costs and gain financial security.
This idea is reinforced by patriarchal norms that devalue and commodify girls.
Because girls have less access to education and low social, political and economic status, they are often economically dependent on men. They may see marriage as their only option.
Girls are most affected by poverty-driven child marriage because:
- They lack access to education and welfare and protection safety nets.
- They have less time to study and earn because they have to do more childcare and household chores than boys.
- Families with few resources are more likely to invest in their sons’ education.
- They can’t trade, own assets or do some jobs because they aren’t allowed to move freely.
- They can’t access fair employment because of workplace harassment and biased recruitment policies.
- Their marriage may be used to repay debts, manage disputes, or settle social, economic and political alliances.
- A dowry or “bride price” may provide a welcome income for a girl’s family in times of economic hardship.
- If the girl’s family has to pay a dowry, the amount may be less if she is young and uneducated.
For more information on poverty and child marriage, see our Economic Justice learning page.
Insecurity
The 10 countries with the highest child marriage prevalence rates are either fragile or extremely fragile.
The prevalence of child marriage increases during crises, with a 20% rise reported in Yemen and South Sudan as a result of conflicts.
Crises caused by conflict, generalised violence, natural hazards – including climate change and disease outbreak – hunger and poverty worsen the factors that drive child marriage.
This is because:
- Families see child marriage as a way to cope with growing economic hardship.
- Parents marry their daughters because they think it will protect them from increased or generalised violence, including sexual violence.
- Displacement breaks down social networks and protection systems, making girls more vulnerable to child marriage.
- Girls may marry or enter informal unions with older men who promise to reunite them with family members who have already migrated or been displaced.
- Child marriage is used as a weapon of war and to hide human trafficking and sexual abuse.
- Access to education is reduced, and schools and children may be targeted or recruited by armed actors. This puts girls at increased risk of exploitation and abuse, including slavery and child marriage.
Child marriages in India
Marriage systems and practices vary by region, caste and tribe. Rates of child marriage are higher in the North-West and lower in the South-East of the country. The states with the highest rates of child marriage (50% and above) are Bihar, Rajasthan, Jharkhand, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.
But even in low prevalence states there may be pockets of with high rates of child marriage. According to a recent district-level household and facility survey (DLHS), conducted for the Health Ministry, the worst state for child marriage is Bihar, where nearly 70% of women in their early twenties reported having been married by the age of 18; the best is Himachal Pradesh at 9%.
Conclusion
Change can only occur with international agencies, national governments and local grassroots groups working together in practical ways. The tensions between girls’ right to education versus their obligation to marry is not simply about gender. Lack of access to quality education makes it difficult to invest resources that are already lacking into sending girls away to attend school in other regions. In this setting, economic necessity and cultural norms about family honour and protection trump the knowledge that child marriage is illegal.
Ending child marriage clearly requires stronger policing of laws around the world. Moreover, addressing poverty is critical. Improving the enrolments of girls in schools requires better facilities in close proximity to rural and urban-poor communities, including qualified teachers who can inspire learning. Education has to be demonstrated to have local applicability. It is not simply enough to educate children. Communities need to see concrete examples that education leads to jobs and practical skills that increase everyone’s quality of life.
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