Karl Marx Historical Materialism
Relevance: Sociology: Paper I: Fundamentals of Sociology: 4. Sociological Thinkers: (a) Karl Marx- Historical materialism, mode of production, alienation, class struggle.
INTRODUCTION
Marx’s general ideas about society are known as his theory of historical materialism. Materialism is the basis of his sociological thought because for Marx material conditions or economic factors affect the structure and development of society.
His theory is that material conditions essentially comprise technological means of production and human society is formed by the forces and relations of production.
Marx’s theory of historical materialism is historical. It is historical because Marx has traced the evolution of human societies from one stage to another. It is called Materialistic because Marx has interpreted the evolution of societies in terms of their material or economic bases. Materialism simply means that it is matter or material reality, which is the basis for any change.
According to Friedrich Engels, the theory of historical materialism was discovered by Karl Marx, but Marx thought it was Engels who has conceived the materialist formulation of history independently. We shall say that both of them used this theory, to quote Marx, as the “guiding thread” of all their works.
Materialism means the materialist structure of society. It is how the super structure of society is based on economic infrastructure. Marx’s theory of historical materialism is the materialistic interpretation of the history of societies. All the societies have experienced similar pattern of history and every history is built upon its materialist foundations.
Marx has tried to suggest that all society passes through unilinear evolution, every society progresses stage by stage and every society has marched ahead. He has suggested about the history of society, i.e.
Primitive Communism → Slavery → Feudalism→ Capitalism →Socialism →Communism
Historians recorded history in the manner it is found. But Marx had a vision for future, how is history taking man through time. Each stage sows the seeds of its own destruction. One will go and other will come. Such precision and succession will continue till the ultimate i.e. communism is reached.
Marx’s theory sought to explain all social phenomena in terms of their place and function in the complex systems of society and nature. This was without recourse to what may be considered as metaphysical explanations clearly outlined in those early writings of Hegal and his followers. This eventually became a mature sociological conception of the making and development of human societies.
Marx’s views on human society and human nature:
- Society as an interrelated whole.
- Changeable nature of society.
- Human nature and social relationships.
1. Marx views human society as an interrelated whole. The social groups, institutions, beliefs and doctrines within it are integrally related. Therefore, he has studied their interrelations rather than treating them separately.
- Marx views society as inherently mutable, in which changes are produced largely by internal contradictions and conflicts. Such changes if observed in a large number of instances, according to Marx, show a sufficient degree of regularity to allow the formulation of general statements about their causes and consequences. Both these assumptions relate to the nature of human society.
- There is one other basic assumption behind historical materialism without which the theory cannot be held together. This relates to the concept of man in general. According to Marx, there is no permanent persistence of human nature. Human nature is neither originally evil nor originally good, it is in original potential.
If human nature is what human beings make history with, then at the same time, it is human nature which they make. And human nature is potentially revolutionary. Human will is not a passive reflection of events, but contains the power to rebel against circumstances in the prevailing limitations of human nature.
It is not that people produce out of material greed or the greed to accumulate wealth, but the act of producing the essentials of life engages people into social relationships that may be independent of their will. In most of human history according to Marx, these relationships are class relationships that create class struggle.
The Theory of Historical Materialism:
The clearest exposition of the theory of historical materialism is contained in Marx’s ‘preface’ to A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy (1859). Here he says that the actual basis of society is its economic structure. For Marx, economic structure of society is made of its relations of production. The legal and political super structure of society is based on relations of production. Marx says that relations of production reflect the stage of society’s forces of production.
Marx’s theory of Historical Materialism states that all objects, whether living or inanimate are subject to continuous change. The rate of this change is determined by the laws of dialectics. Marx says that new developments of productive forces of society came in conflict with existing relations of production.
When people become conscious of the state of conflict, they wish to bring an end to it. This period of history is called by Marx the Period of Social Revolution. The revolution brings about resolution of conflict. It means that new forces of production take roots and give rise to new relations of production.
Thus we can see that for Marx it is the growth of new productive forces which outlines the course of human history. The productive forces are the powers society uses to produce material conditions of life. So for Marx, human history is an account of development and consequences of new forces of material production. This is the reason why his view of history is given the name of Historical Materialism.
The terms mentioned in Marx’s theory of Historical materialism:
- Social relations, over and above individuals:
Marx says that as a general principle, the production of material requirements of life, which is a very basic necessity of all societies; compel individuals to enter into definite social relations that are independent of their will. This is the basic idea of Marx’s theory of society. He stresses that there are social relations which impinge upon individuals irrespective of their preferences. He further elaborates that an understanding of the historical process depends on our awareness of these objective social relations.
- Infrastructure and Super-structure:
According to Marx, every society has its infrastructure and superstructure. Social relations are defined in terms of material conditions which he called infrastructure. The economic base of a society forms its infrastructure. Any changes in material conditions also imply corresponding changes in social relations. Forces and relations of production came in the category of infrastructure. Within the superstructure figure the legal, educational and political institutions as well as values, cultural ways of thinking, religion, ideologies and philosophies.
- Forces and relations of production:
The forces of production appear to be the capacity of a society to produce. This capacity to produce is essentially a function of scientific and technical knowledge, technological equipment and the organisation of labour force. The relations of production arise out of the production process but essentially overlap with the relations in ownership of means of production.
Relations of production should not be entirely identified with relations of property. At certain points in time, Marx speaks in terms of transformation of society from one stage to another. In explaining the process of transformation, Marx has given us a scheme of historical movement.
- Social change in terms of social classes:
Marx elaborates the significance of the infrastructure of society by tracing the formation of the principal social classes. He develops the idea of social change resulting from internal conflicts in a theory of class struggles. For Marx, social change displays a regular pattern. Marx constructs in broad terms, a historical sequence of the main types of society, proceeding from the simple, undifferentiated society of “primitive communism” to the complex class society of modern capitalism.
He provides an explanation of the great historical transformation which demolished old forms of society and created new ones in terms of infrastructural changes which he regards as general and constant in their operation. Each period of contradiction between the forces and relations of production is seen by Marx as a period of revolution.
Dialectical relationship between the forces and relations of production:
In revolutionary periods, one class is attached to the old relations of production. These relations hinder the development of the forces of production. Another class, on the other hand, is forward looking. It strives for new relations of production.
The new relations of production do not create obstacles in the way of the development of the forces of production. They encourage the maximum growth of those forces. This is the abstract formulation of Marx’s ideas of class struggle.
Revolutions and the history of societies:
The dialectical relationship between the forces of production and relations of production also provides a theory of revolution. In Marx’s reading of history, revolutions are not political accidents. They are treated as social expression of the historical movement. Revolutions are necessary manifestations of the historical progress of societies.
Revolutions occur when the conditions for them mature. Let us take an example. Feudal society developed capitalist relations of production. When these relations of production reached a degree of maturity in Europe came the French revolution. Marx here spoke of another process of transformation from capitalism to socialism. This is how Marx interpreted historical movement of societies.
Social reality and consciousness:
Marx has made a distinction between infrastructure and superstructure. At the same time he has also distinguished social reality and consciousness. For Marx, reality is not determined by human consciousness. According to him, social reality determines human consciousness.
This results in an overall conception in which ways of human thinking must be explained in terms of the social relations of which they are a part. Besides the forces and relations of production, Marx has spoken about the mode of production. Accordingly he has described stages of human history in terms of the four modes of production; namely the Asiatic, the Ancient, the Feudal and the Capitalist.
- The Ancient mode of production is characterised by slavery.
- The Feudal mode by serfdom.
- The Capitalist mode by wage earning.
They constitute three distinct modes of exploitation of human labour. Asiatic mode of production which does not constitute a stage in western history is distinguished by the subordination of all people to the state or the state bureaucracy.
Four Modes of Production:
- Asiatic mode of Production:
The concept of Asiatic mode of production refers to a specific original mode of production. This is distinct from the ancient slave mode of production or the feudal mode of production. It is characterised by primitive communities in which ownership of land is communal. These communities are still partly organised on the basis of kinship relations. State power which expresses the real or imaginary unity of these communities controls the use of essential economic resources and directly appropriates part of the labour and production of the community.
This mode of production constitutes one of the possible forms of transition from classless to class societies. It is also perhaps the most ancient form of this transition. It contains the contradiction of this transition, i.e. the combination of communal relations of production with emerging forms of the exploiting classes and of the state.
The concept of Asiatic mode of production is inadequate because there was no class; no concept of private property. The entire property is owned by the society. So that no individual has access to it—so no clashes of classes. Resources were low and there was low population.
Gradually towards the end of primitive communism there were certain group of people who were physically strong and so towards its end the concept of private property came into being. So primitive communism could not survive and there emerged a different type of society.
- Ancient mode of Production:
According to Marx, every part of history has its end point. So primitive communism was to go and slavery came into being. People who had physical, political and material strength had authority over others. So two classes were found and this is where the concept of private property emerged. There were two classes—the owning class, they are the masters, and non-owning class, they were the slaves.
Marx has tried to suggest that in course of time different people grabbed certain plots of land as a result of which there was grabbing and as a result of which a large number were left wretched. So they had to depend on these owners in order to make a living and it went on rising and so when they would not pay their debts they were sold and engaged under the so called masters.
Slaves were mere chattels. They had no right and were used like commodities and they could be bought and sold. So individuals were slaves and it went on resulting in a family of slaves and masters were masters. So it became very heinous of people worked without any voice, even if the torture was unbearable. Slaves were made to work under stringent physical conditions. They were engaged in agricultural, menial and physical labour.
If the society has experienced heinous system at any point of time, it is slavery. So it was to go and another stage was to come. So, towards its end, a sort of internal struggle was found so that the slaves, peasants started a revolution against the masters so as to release certain slaves from the clutches of the masters. Slavery is called the stage of initial agriculture.
So agricultural capitalism was to come. Agricultural innovations would take place. Technology was applied to agriculture. People started to understand the dignity of labour and the stage came, i.e. Feudalism or Agricultural capitalism.
- Feudal Mode of Production:
At this stage as Marx said throughout the pages of history we find two classes. They were feudal lords and serfs. Lords owned the land in their favour and their job was to lease land and employ agricultural labour in their lands. The owners who were leased had to pay certain taxes and the labourers were given wages.
This is even a heinous system and the lords exploited by not paying the labour its due. So Marx said that this stage was also exploitative in character. Heavy taxes were imposed on serfs. This stage could not grow much as industries were growing and people sought their job in industries and in cities. So the serfs fought against the lords. With the spreading of industries, urbanization grew, so emphasis was on industries and came the next stage, i.e. Industrial capitalism.
- Capitalistic mode of production:
Marx was very much bothered about this stage because this represented the most heinous and migration was found from rural to urban areas. Those who worked in agricultural lands shifted to industries. There were two classes— the working classes, the proletariats and the bourgeoisie.
Marx wanted to champion the cause of proletariat and he wanted that the exploitative character must go and equality be established. So Marx was Futuristic. Socialism is the stage where the society is classless and it is based on the principle of equality. Marx had experienced socialism and there was spread of socialism based on his ideas.
Communism is the ultimate final stage where there is prevalence of equality among all. Everybody works according to his capacity and gets according to his due, when capitalism goes and communism comes into being there are some elements found in some form or other of capitalism in socialism.
As per Marx, socialism is the initial communism and communism is the later socialism because everybody is equal and can stand in the same queue and communist society is thoroughly equal and no concept of private property ownership.
In socialism, there are two ownership structures:
- State ownership
- Ownership by co-operatives.
But under communism there is single ownership; i.e. State /Community ownership. Everybody gets as per his due and works as per his capacity. This stage was difficult to find. So we find that with spread of Marx’s ideas we find communism in Russia and China. But socialism is the gap that still remains.
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