Introduction

Untouchability, constitutionally abolished under Article 17 of the Indian Constitution, is often perceived as a relic of the past. However, sociological evidence suggests that while its overt forms have declined, its structural logic persists in subtle, adaptive, and often institutionalized ways. The 21st century has not eliminated caste-based exclusion; rather, it has transformed its expressions across economic, spatial, digital, and cultural domains.

Historical Continuity and Structural Persistence

Classical sociologists such as G.S. Ghurye conceptualized caste as a system of hierarchical division, maintained through endogamy, occupational specialization, and social distance. Untouchability was its most extreme manifestation. Contemporary scholars argue that although legal frameworks and modernization have weakened traditional sanctions, caste remains embedded in social institutions. The persistence of manual scavenging, caste-based residential segregation, and discrimination in access to resources indicates that untouchability continues as a “structure of inequality,” not merely a practice.

Changing Forms in Urban Spaces

Urbanization was expected to dilute caste identities through anonymity and occupational mobility. Yet, research shows that cities reproduce caste through housing discrimination, informal labor segmentation, and social networks. Dalits often face exclusion in rental housing markets, where surnames or dietary practices act as markers of caste identity. This reflects what sociologists call “covert untouchability”—a shift from ritual exclusion to social exclusion mediated by market mechanisms.

Economic Marginalization and Labour Hierarchies

In the neoliberal economy, caste intersects with class to produce new vulnerabilities. Dalits are disproportionately concentrated in precarious, low-paying jobs in the informal sector. Even in formal employment, discrimination persists in hiring, promotion, and workplace interactions. Studies indicate that identical resumes with caste-identifiable names receive differential responses, highlighting how untouchability adapts within modern capitalist structures. This aligns with B.R. Ambedkar’s insight that caste is not merely a division of labor but a division of laborers.

Digital Untouchability and Social Media

The digital sphere, often celebrated as egalitarian, has also become a site for caste-based exclusion. Online harassment, casteist slurs, and algorithmic biases contribute to what can be termed “digital untouchability.” Social media platforms amplify both resistance and discrimination. Dalit voices have found new avenues for assertion, yet they also face organized trolling and exclusion from dominant discourse. Thus, technology does not erase caste; it reconfigures it.

Cultural and Symbolic Exclusion

Untouchability today often manifests in symbolic forms—exclusion from temples, denial of participation in rituals, or segregation in community events. Even in educational institutions, subtle practices such as social isolation, bias in evaluation, and differential treatment reinforce caste hierarchies. The tragic cases of student suicides in elite institutions reveal how deeply embedded caste prejudice remains within spaces that are formally meritocratic.

State, Law, and Resistance

The Indian state has enacted multiple legal safeguards, including the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act. However, implementation gaps, underreporting, and social pressures limit their effectiveness. At the same time, Dalit movements, civil society activism, and identity-based politics have challenged caste oppression. The rise of Dalit literature, assertion in public spaces, and political mobilization signal a shift from victimhood to resistance.

Conclusion

Untouchability in the 21st century is not an anachronism but a transformed reality. Its overt practices may have declined, but its structural foundations endure through new mechanisms of exclusion. Understanding these transformations requires moving beyond legal abolition to a sociological analysis of power, inequality, and social reproduction. The challenge lies not only in eliminating practices but in dismantling the structures that sustain them.