Relevance: Sociology paper I
Weber’s studies of religion focus on the ethos or ethics of religions of the world and their mutual interactions with other social sub-systems like polity and economy. There is thus a historicity in Weber’s approach. Weber, published a number of studies on religion, including The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism and comparative studies on the religions of India, China and the religion of the Jews.
The Religion of India
Weber speaks of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism in The Religion of India which he wrote in 1916. Hinduism is to be understood in relation to the caste system. The caste system, which arose as a result of occupational specialisation which became hereditary over the centuries, was dominated by the Brahmin. It was the Brahmin caste that had access to the learning of the scriptures. This caste was the hereditary carrier of traditional ideas. The lower castes, particularly the Shudra faced a great number of socio- cultural disabilities. They were ritually ‘impure’ and were thus denied access to the scriptures. This automatically meant that they could not aspire to moksha or salvation, the Hindu ideal. The doctrine of ‘karma’, according to Weber, is the central belief in Hinduism. A person’s position in the present life is a consequence of good or evil deeds of ‘karma’ in the past life. If the person’s ‘karma’ in this life is in accordance with his ‘dharma’ or duty, he will be rewarded in future lives. The ‘dharma’ of a Brahmin is to study the scriptures. The Kshatriya must defend his land and people, the Vaishya must engage in commerce, and the Shudra must serve the other castes. A person is born in a particular caste because of past ‘karma’ and must dutifully carry out ‘dharma’ in order to aspire to a better birth in the next life. The idea to aspire to was ‘moksha’ or liberation from this cycle of birth, death and rebirth. It would be final freedom from the pain and uncertainty of life on earth.
Material prosperity was desirable, but it was temporary. It did not have permanent value. Spiritual prosperity, though, did have permanence. It could free an individual from the cycles of birth, death and rebirth. Pursuing spiritual goals would help in achieving ‘moksha’. Weber tries to show how it is this sort of ‘other-worldly’ ethic that worked against the rise of capitalism. Weber points out that medieval Indian cities were renowned centers of manufacture. Technology was at a fairly advanced level. Although material conditions were favorable, the Hindu religion made people de- emphasize material life.
Buddhism and Jainism, which tried to counter the rigidity of orthodox Hinduism, were according to Weber, pacifist or peace-emphasising religions. They were religions of contemplation and their followers were monks or people who rejected the world. The lay persons or ordinary followers could gain religious merit by offering alms to monks, but they could not achieve salvation through ‘nirvana’ unless they gave up their occupations and became monks themselves.
The caste system, the religious beliefs of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism thus mutually reinforced each other and prevented the development of capitalism although medieval Indian cities were fertile ground for capitalism
The Religion of China
Weber also wrote The Religion of China in 1916. Speaking of Confucianism, the traditional Chinese religion, Weber points out that like Protestantism, Confucianism too was marked by ‘this worldly asceticism’. But whilst Protestantism sought to transform or attain mastery over the world, Confucianism emphasised harmony. The order of the world and the cosmos was to be maintained by carrying on the proper ceremonies that upheld the world order. Propriety in manners and behaviour was greatly stressed. The ruling classes, the Chinese ‘mandarins’ were the upholders of manners and morals. Maintaining social order meant that actively changing the world, an important aspect of capitalism, was discouraged. Thus, the Confucian ethic of propriety, restraint and harmony went against developing capitalism
Ancient Judaism
Written between 1917 and 1919, this work of Weber is of crucial importance in understanding the changes that took place in the western world. Judaism is the seedbed from which the modern world-transforming religions of Islam and Christianity originated. Judaism propagated the idea of creating a ‘heaven on earth’. This idea has far-reaching implications. It encourages followers to actively transform the world and master it. The ethic of mastery over the environment is a key feature of modern western civilization. The prophets of Judaism were ethical leaders who tried to unite their followers through their teachings. These prophets preached to the discontented and oppressed peasant classes of Palestine that the anger of God would destroy the land. They said that god was angry with the ruling classes living in the cities because of their sinful life-styles and their degenerate ways. Unless these groups were overthrown and a society that went according to the ways of god was established, Palestine could not hope to prosper. The existence of ‘ethical prophets’ who preach a certain programme of action is a characteristic feature of religions like Islam and Christianity as well. Weber’s work on Christianity and Islam could not be completed. His death in 1920 prevented him from realising his plan of putting together his findings on the great world religions and using them to find an answer regarding the birth and growth of capitalism
Weber’s study of religion brings out the role of prophets. He also shows how religious beliefs are connected with particular strata of society. Thus Confucianism is primarily connected with the ruling class, the ‘mandarins’, Hinduism is linked with the Brahmin orthodoxy trying to perpetuate the caste system; and Judaism is linked with a discontented peasantry striving to overcome oppression.