Relevance: Sociology Paper I: Thinkers: Robert Merton: Deviance
Approach:
- Description of ‘middle range theory’, in theory formulation in sociology
- Sociological explanation of ‘deviance ‘ through ‘functionalist analysis’ on the basis of study of ‘American society’.
- The culture and structure of ‘American society’ and the five types of deviance.
- Conclusion: criticism and contribution.
Model Answer:
Robert .K. Merton s , ‘ middle range theory’ is opposed to ‘abstract theorizing’, which are a ‘total theoretical system’ covering all aspects of social life . According to him , sociologists should concentrate on ‘measurable aspects of social reality’, rather than attempting to explain the’ entire social world.’ These theories transcend sheer description of social phenomena, and are theories , from which specific ‘ hypothesis’ can be derived and ‘empirically tested ‘. Robert .K. Merton s ‘theory of deviance ‘, has been derived from the study of ‘ American society ‘. An attempt has been made to‘integrate’ a theoretical position with empirical observation .
Beginning with the ‘functionalist analysis ‘ Robert .K. Merton , argues that ‘deviance results from
the culture and structure of society itself.’ Deviance is therefore , ‘relative and can only be
defined in relation to a particular standard and no standards are fixed or absolute’. Taking
the ‘functionalist position’, of value -consensus , Merton argues that , all members of the society ,share the ‘ same values’ (cultural goals), however, since members of the society are placed in ‘different positions’ , in the social structure ,they do not have the same opportunity of realizing the
shared values . This situation generates ‘deviance’.
Basing his study on the ‘American Society’, Robert .K. Merton, opined that members of the American society share the ‘major values’ of American culture. They share the ‘goal of success’, which is largely measured in terms of ‘wealth and material possessions.’ All societies have ‘institutionalized means’ of reaching culturally defined goals.’ In America, it is through education, talent, hard work, drive, determination and ambition. In any ‘balanced society ‘,an equal emphasis is placed upon both ‘cultural goals and institutionalized means’. However , in America , great importance is attached to ‘success, and relatively little importance is given to the ‘accepted ways’ of achieving success. Therefore , American society is ‘unstable and unbalanced.’ In a situation , where rules cease to operate , a situation of ‘normlessness’ or ‘anomie ‘results and ‘deviance ‘is encouraged .
According , to Merton individual members of a society will respond to a situation of ‘anomie’ in different ways and their reaction would be shaped by their position in the ‘social structure.’ .He outlined five possible ways in which members of American society could respond to ‘success goals.’
The first and most common response is conformity. Here, members of a society conform both to the culturally defined goals, and the institutionalized means to achieve them..
A second response is innovation. It rejects ‘normative means’ of achieving success and turns to deviant means, in particular, crime. According to Merton, members of the lower social strata, who have little access to conventional and legitimate means for becoming successful, are most likely to respond in this manner. However , Merton , argues it is only those in the lower strata , who have been ‘imperfectly socialized’ , who innovate ,
The third response is ritualism. Deviance results from abandoning the success goals. It is greatest for members of the ‘lower middle class’ whose occupations provide less opportunity for success . They are lowgrade bureaucrats, ultra-respectable. Unable to innovate , they scale down the ‘success goals’. The fourth response is retreatism. They have strongly internalized means, yet are unable to achieve success. They resolve the conflict by abandoning both the ‘goals’ and the ‘ means’ of reaching them. Merton
does not relate retreatism to any ‘ social class position’. It applies to psychotics, , outcasts, vagabonds,
tramps, chronic drunkards and drug addicts.
Rebellion forms the fifth response. It is a ‘rejection’ of both the success goals and the institutionalized means, and it replaces them with ‘different goals and means’. According to Merton, it is typically members of ‘a rising class’ rather than the most depressed strata.
Robert. K. Merton, thus through his analysis showed how the’ culture and structure’ of a particular society generates deviance . The theory of deviance , which establishes that deviance results not from ‘pathological personalities ‘ but from the ‘culture and structure ‘ of societies, can be empirically tested on other societies ..
Robert .K.Merton s theory of deviance , though was a departure from constructing ‘total theoretical systems’ in explaining social phenomena , yet suffered from certain deficiencies . He has been criticized for assuming that there is a ‘value consensus’ in American society and that people deviate only because of ‘structural strain’.
According to, Taylor and Young , Merton s theory cannot account for ‘politically motivated criminals,’ such as freedom fighters, who break the law because of their commitment to the cause rather than the effects of anomie. Albert Cohen, questioned if ‘non -utilitarian crime ‘, such as vandalism, were directly motivated by the ‘success goals’ of the mainstream culture .
Some critics, have questioned Merton s explanation of empirical reality , by arguing that , his theory, over predicts and exaggerates ‘working class crime’ and under predicts ‘ middle class or white collar crime .’
The ‘positivist approach ‘ implicit in Merton s theory of deviance has been questioned by critiques . According to the ‘interactionists’, deviants do not simply passively react to the ‘external forces’, and they stress on ‘internal factors’. Deviance is rather produced , by a process of ‘ interaction between the potential deviant and the agents of social control ‘
The ‘sub culture theorists ‘ have criticized Merton s theory of deviance , by explaining deviance ,
through commitment to the norms and values of the ‘sub culture’ group to which an individual belongs , rather than the class position on the whole . However , some empirical support for Merton s theory has been provided by , Hannon and Defronzo. The emphasis through the ‘middle range theory’ on the study of specific aspect of social reality , through ‘empirical observation’ , has hugely contributed towards making sociology ,an ‘empirically orients discipline ‘. Merton , argued that the theories , thus derived could be eventually consolidated in ‘general theory of society ‘. The sociological theory of deviance, thus remains one of the most plausible attempts to explain ‘ crime rates in whole societies .’
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