Various theories on citizenship
Relevant for Sociology Optional for Civil Service Examination.
Relevance : Sociology Paper -1
Unit – Polity & Society
Various theories on citizenship
- Liberal Theory:
- The liberal perspective posits that civil rights form the bedrock of citizenship, centering around the concept of individualism.
- Citizenship, as per this theory, is a legal status that bestows specific rights upon individuals, safeguarding them from state interference.
- T. H. Marshall, in his seminal work “Citizenship and Social Class” published in 1950, charts the evolution of citizenship in Britain. Marshall identifies three elements of citizenship – civil, political, and social
- Although liberal citizenship ensures formal legal equality, substantive equality remains elusive, with critics pointing out persistent inequalities based on factors like caste, class, race, and gender.
- Republican Theory: The Republican tradition emphasizes civic self-rule achieved through citizen participation. Rousseau, in “The Social Contract,” contends that citizens attain freedom and laws gain legitimacy through the co-authoring of laws based on the general will.
- Active engagement in deliberation and policymaking is advocated by republicans, contrasting with liberals who rely on the protection of citizenship through law.
- While liberals prefer representative democracy, republicans champion deliberative democracy. Republicans assert that citizenship should be viewed as a shared civic identity moulded by a common public culture. Civic identity, according to this perspective, can unite citizens as long as it surpasses other identities like religion and ethnicity.
- Despite these ideals, ensuring widespread citizen participation becomes challenging in the context of modern nation-states’ scale and complexity.
- Libertarian Theory: The libertarian perspective traces its roots to the British Conservative government under Margaret Thatcher in 1979, prioritizing market rights over social rights.
- Libertarians argue that individuals pursue their values and preferences through private activities rather than relying on public redistribution. Citizenship, in this view, emerges from free choices and contracts among individuals, with the market society serving as the foundation.
- Robert Nozick is a prominent proponent of libertarian theory, emphasizing “entrepreneurial freedom” and the freedom to earn and own property.
- Critics argue that market-based individualism lacks a robust foundation for social solidarity.
- Communitarian Theory: Communitarians challenge liberals for neglecting the social nature of individuals and focusing excessively on individual rights. They argue that individuals exist within a community and stress the importance of duties and responsibilities towards the community.
- Unlike liberals who prioritize individual rights, communitarians highlight the significance of group rights. Critics argue that communitarian citizenship may only be suitable for small, homogeneous societies with shared traditions.
- The discussion extends to the intersection of citizenship and multiculturalism, especially in the context of modern societies increasingly recognized as multicultural due to globalization.
- Critics of the liberal understanding of citizenship, which centers on the individual, contend that specific contexts like culture, religion, ethnicity, and language should be the determining factors of citizenship.
- Will Kymlicka, in his book “Multicultural Citizenship: A Liberal Theory of Minority Rights,” argues for “collective rights” for minority cultures consistent with liberal democratic principles.
- Marxist Theory : According to the Marxist perspective, citizenship rights are a byproduct of class conflict. The existence of economically weaker sections poses a challenge to achieving equality before the law, as these sections struggle to exercise their citizenship rights due to the dominance of economically powerful classes.
- Marxists believe that in a communist state, where the state is expected to wither away, the concept of citizenship itself is temporary. However, historical practices differ, with Lenin abolishing the terms ‘state’ and ‘citizen,’ and Stalin later restoring them in 1936, outlining rights and duties for individuals.
- Anthony Giddens revisits the Marxist perspective, suggesting that modern democracy and citizenship began evolving in the 16th century as the state expanded its administrative power and engaged citizens in cooperative social relations. Giddens argues for the maintenance of citizenship rights within a liberal framework.
- Pluralist Theory: The pluralist perspective views the development of citizenship as a multi-dimensional and complex process, attributing its evolution to a diverse set of factors. Citizenship, according to this theory, involves a reciprocal relationship between the individual and the community.
- Pluralist theory, articulated by David Held, insists on examining all forms of discrimination, including gender, race, religion, property, education, occupation, or age.
- In the contemporary world, numerous social movements, such as feminist, black, religious reform, workers’, children’s rights, dalit, adivasi, and ecological movements, address various forms of social discrimination. Pluralist theory recommends analyzing the issue of citizenship within the context of these movements.
- Feminist Perspective: Feminists argue that women worldwide are treated as second-class citizens due to male dominance across civil, political, cultural, economic, and social spheres.
- Women’s lower levels of political participation and representation underscore this inequality. Feminists challenge the distinction between public (political participation) and private (domestic) spheres, asserting that it perpetuates male dominance at the expense of women’s rights.
- In the 1970s, the women’s movement slogan “The Personal is Political” emphasized the interconnectedness of personal and political spheres. J.S. Mill’s call for an egalitarian family is endorsed by liberals aiming for constitutional reforms to address gender-based inequalities, known as civic feminism.
- Socialist feminists advocate for expanded areas like free birth control, abortion, health facilities, and state recognition of domestic labor.
- Radical feminists push for women’s entry into the public sphere for active citizenship.
- Gandhi’s Views: Gandhi’s views on citizenship centre on the notions of common good and active citizenship. He challenges the centralized power of the state, advocating for a decentralized state based on the principles of dharma (moral law and duty), ahimsa (non-violence in thought and deed), and satya (truth and sincerity).
- Gandhi places great trust in the individual’s resistance against state coercion and envisions an ideal non-violent state that is self-governing, self-sufficient, and upholds majority rule with respect for minority rights.
- Gandhi emphasizes the indivisibility of freedom and envisions citizens of the world, encouraging individuals to think locally and act globally, acknowledging that every global struggle is a personal one.
Reference: Static Portion
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Frequently Asked Questions:
1. Question: Define the term “ethnic movement” and provide an example from India.
Answer: An ethnic movement refers to a collective effort by a group sharing common cultural, linguistic, or religious traits, seeking to assert their identity and rights; an example from India is the Khalistan Movement in Punjab.
2. Question: Identify the main objectives behind the Gorkhaland ethnic movement.
Answer: The Gorkhaland ethnic movement primarily seeks to establish a separate state for India’s Nepali-speaking population in the Darjeeling region, advocating for linguistic and cultural recognition and political autonomy.
3. Question: What was the Operation Blue Star, and which ethnic movement was it related to?
Answer: Operation Blue Star was a military action in 1984, aiming to remove Sikh militants hiding in the Golden Temple in Amritsar; it is related to the Khalistan movement, which sought a separate Sikh country.
4. Question: Mention a critical factor that triggered the emergence of ethnic movements in India, as discussed by Dipankar Gupta.
Answer: Dipankar Gupta emphasized that ethnicity is fundamentally a political process, wherein caste and religion, the key components of identity formation, are politicized by leaders for vested interests.
5. Question: What were the primary reasons for the Assam Ethnicity conflicts involving Bodo tribals and Bengali Muslim settlers?
Answer: The Assam Ethnicity conflicts primarily stemmed from issues related to immigration, land rights, and resource allocation, leading to clashes, riots, and evolving relationships among indigenous communities to address challenges.
6. Question: Briefly describe the role of the Dravidian Movement in terms of caste and societal structure.
Answer: The Dravidian Movement, led notably by E.V. Ramasamy, aimed to establish an egalitarian society, focusing on anti-Brahmanism and advocating for equal rights for backward castes, while also introducing reforms like self-respect marriages.
7. Question: Name the prominent ethnic movements in North-East India and specify one common objective.
Answer: Prominent ethnic movements in North-East India include the Nagas’ and Mizos’ struggles; a common objective was to gain autonomy and recognition for their distinct tribal identities and cultural uniqueness.
8. Question: What is the key argument of Gail Omveldt regarding traditional Indian society and multiculturalism?
Answer: Gail Omveldt opposed romanticizing traditional Indian society, arguing that hierarchy has always dominated it and dismissing the notion that multiculturalism is an intrinsic feature of Indian society as a myth.
9. Question: Briefly explain the social hierarchy factor as a contributing element to ethnic movements as suggested by Olzak.
Answer: Olzak suggests that the construction of hierarchies among ethnic communities, which often leads to the suppression of one group by another, is a key factor that can instigate social and ethnic movements.
10. Question: Identify one consequence of the unequal economic development factor within the context of ethnic movements in India.
Answer: One consequence of unequal economic development is the marginalization and underdevelopment of certain groups, leading to feelings of alienation and sometimes initiating ethnic movements as these groups strive for equality and recognition.
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