RURAL DEVELOPMENT AFTER INDEPENDENCE
Relevant for Sociology Paper-II : Rural & Agrarian transformation in India:-
The programmes of village development taken up during the transitional period between the end of feudal rule and the implementation of Five Year Plans.
(1) Firka Development Scheme (1947): On the eve of the attainment of independence, the former Madras state launched a new scheme of village development known as Firka development scheme. It was in spired by the ideology of Gandhiji. The scheme emphasised a perfect coordination of different state departments that were engaged in rural development. Such departments included agriculture, industries, irrigation and veterinary. “Under the Firka development plan the five main centres of activity were agriculture, village industries, sanitation, health and housing, education and village social and cultural activities.” Rural water supply and health facilities were given priority over other aspects of village development.
The scheme was evaluated in 1952. It was found that with some drawbacks it was a successful story. However, when the community development projects were started in 1952 the Firka scheme was merged in it. The experience of Firka was much useful for running the community development projects.
(2) Nilokheri Project (1947): Nilokheri is located in Karnal district of Punjab (now in Haryana). The Nilokheri project was launched for the settlement of refugees who migrated to Punjab during the riots which took place soon after independence. The project was initiated by S.K. Dey who was then, the Minister of Community Development. The original plan of Nilokheri was to have a township of 5,000 people and to link it with villages having a population of about 25,000. It was contemplated that the Nilokheri town would have centre of medical relief, Public health and sanitation. There was also a provision for high school education, technical and vocational training, horticulture, poultry, piggery, fishery, sheep breeding and other farms of animal husbandry. It was within the scope of the project to change the villages according to the scheme of development. It was planned to accommodate the refugees who were then living in the camps. However, the complete scheme for urban and rural area could not materialise as the Ministry of Rehabilitation was concentrated only with the displaced persons who could be settled in the new town, and in the villages around there were already old inhabitants. Alongside technical and vocational training, work centres were started in all the crafts which were taught in the former institutions, Weaving calico printing, soap making, laundry, bakery, tinsmithy, blacksmithy, general mechanics, leather and a multitude of other crafts and trades came in as production nucleus.
The Nilokheri project was unlike any other village development project. Its objective was to rehabilitate the refugees in a planned settlement where they could get everything which is required for a town or a village. The clusters of neighbouring villages were also planned to be attached with the Nilokheri town. But, this could not be done as the villages were already settled and had their felt needs fulfilled. The project did not have a formal role of non-officials. S.K. Dey who was basically an engineer did not pay much heed to social and cultural aspects of village. Despite this weakness Nilokheri was an excellent exercise in the planning of a town. It would be worthwhile to say here that Indian villages are never found in planned settlements.
(3) Etawah Project (1948): The project was conceived by Albert Mayer who was an American town planner and remained in India during the Second World War. The project started at Mahewa in the district of Etawah of Uttar Pradesh in 1948 with the aim to develop villages in the fields of agriculture, cooperation and public health. The Etawah project was the forerunner to the Community Development Project (CDP) which later on started in 1952. It should also be observed that the project was supervised by experts in different walks of village life. The project personnel was expected to provide expert guidance but the people were required to make the project self running. No financial assistance, however, was given to the people. The project belonged to them and, therefore, they had to run it. An other speciality of the project was that it emphasised on agriculture, cooperatives, health and sanitation, and education. Such an approach to village development makes two things clear: the development of villages occupies a top most priority and agriculture, cooperatives and education are the prime areas that no development effort could afford to neglect.
Community Development Project (1952)
The Directive Principles of State Policy put down that the state would make all efforts to improve the life of the scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and weaker sections of society. It is in accordance with the pro visions of Constitution of India that the states launch special development programmes for the weaker sections. Add to it is the objective of developing our villages that live under conditions of poverty. It was a historical obligation to prepare plans for village development. The All India Congress Committee, in several of its conferences, reiterated the need for village development. Gandhiji had his support for such a plan.
It was in 1951 that the Planning Commission submitted its draft report to the government. It was unhistorical for India to have adopted a uniform approach for the development of villages. When the draft plan was still under consideration of the public, the Colombo Plan for India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Borneo and Sarawak, that is, all Commonwealth countries was drawn up. This plan was also incorporated in our plan and in December 1952 the First Five Year Plan in its final shape was presented to the parliament. The Sec one Five Year Plan came out in 1956 and the Third Plan in 1961 and so on after every five years. Now, we are at the stage of Ninth Five Year Plan. It was on 2nd October, 1952-the day of Gandhi Jayanti-that the Community Development Project (CDP) was launched in the country. In the beginning 55 areas comprising 27,338 villages and a population of 16.7 million were selected for intensive development. By the end of the First Plan, the CDP and National Extension Service (NES) had been taken up in about 1,40,000 villages situated in 998 development blocks and serving a population of 77.5 million persons. By 1959 the CDP was finally withdrawn and redesigned in the form of Panchayati Raj. The new incarnation of community development involved the participation of the people, that is, non-officials in the statuses of Zila Pramukh, Pradhan, Sarpanch and Panch.
The CDP was mainly aimed at the development of villages. It meant development of (1) agriculture and related matters, (2) irrigation, (3) communication, (4) education, (5) health, (6) supplementary employment, (7) housing, (8) social welfare, and (9) training, Agriculture and related matters included the intensive development of agriculture alongwith reclamation of wasteland, provision of improved seeds, and supply of chemical manure through village cooperative society, improvement of livestock and intensive cultivation through the production of fruits and vegetables.
Irrigation included provision of water by minor irrigation works, namely, tubewells, tanks, canal etc. It was planned that out of the total cultivable village land half of it should be irrigated. Communication meant road system in the countryside to be developed. Wherever necessary, approach linked roads should be constructed. It was estimated that no village under the CDP should be more than half a mile away from the main road.
The educational programme included social education for adults, expansion and improvement of primary and secondary education and programmes for removal of social evils.
Serious concern was shown to health and sanitation. It was planned that each development block should have one primary health unit. The block headquarters should possess a secondary health unit with a hospital and a mobile dispensary. Public health programmes included provisions for water supply, control of epidemics like malaria, cholera etc., and training to villagers in public hygiene. Within the supplementary employment, the villagers were given opportunities for gainful employment by the development of cottage and small-scale industries, construction of brick kilns, saw mills etc.
The CDP also planned to give opportunities in the tertiary sectors which could be created. In the field of housing the plan provided demonstration and training in improved techniques and designs for rural housing. In congested villages action in the direction of development of new sites, opening of village parks and playgrounds had been planned.
The social welfare activities included provisions for audio-visual aids for instruction and recreation. The CDP also considered training for the village level workers and other personnel who were to be employed in these programmes. One very important part of the CDP was the establishment of Programmes Evaluation Organisation under the Planning Commission. Its main functions were as under:
(1) current appraisal of the ongoing projects;(2) identification of the projects which made successful stories; (3) plugging the programmes which are accepted or rejected by the people; and (4) providing explanation for the response given by the people to the projects which are implemented.
Some Salient Features
When the CDP was launched in 1952, there were some strategic assumptions about the development of India’s villages. The government assured the villagers that they should accept the various projects given to them, as expert advice would always be made available to them. The CDP has also the services of experts in various fields, such as agriculture, irrigation, education and veterinary science. Their services can be given without any payment to the people. The CDP also, in a larger way, promised the villagers to make them available the required amount of money by way of loan on easy terms. It was also contemplated that the project personnel would provide some infrastructural facilities to the village people. A school, a dispensary, an approach or link road, a cooperative society and other such minimum needs for the people would be given out of project funds. The broad objective of the CDP was to make the villagers self-reliant. The people will have to stand on their own legs, the government would provide the required expertise and financial assistance.
The CDP was designed and implemented initially for three years. It was guessed that during this period the villagers would be self-sup porting; they will have their own irrigation facilities, their own school and cooperative. In 1959, the project was withdrawn with the hope that the villages would march ahead on the road to progress without any financial assistance. This, however, did not happen. At the end, the CDP proved to be a project of failure. Out of it there emerged a new form of community development following the recommendations made by Balwanth Rai Mehta Committee in 1959. Analyse the drawbacks of the project.
A Critique
The Programme Evaluation Organisation (PEO) and a large number of social scientists including sociologists, anthropologists and economists have criticised the CDP. Some of their major criticisms are as under:
(1) The project became highly bureaucratised. It was a development of the village people from the above, the people of the below were only passive receivers. There was least involvement of the masses of people.
(2) The needs of the people were perceived by the project personnel or in other words by those who were at the planning level. The felt needs of the people throughout the period of implementation of project, remained unidentified by the government.
(3) The PEO reiterated in its reports that a few of the schemes were implemented only on paper. In reality, on verification, it was found that no wells were created, no community halls were made, no parks were erected though all these appeared very much in the official records. For the people the programmes of the CDP were farce and full of scandals.
(4) Corruption plagued the implementation of various programmes under CDP. The point which came home with the people was that the total bureaucracy was corrupt. Only a meagre part of the budgetary allocation was actually spent for the people.
(5) Despite huge expenditure on agricultural development the food production did not increase.
(6) The benefits of the CDP went to the rich and big farmers at the cost of small and marginal farmers.
(7) There was a dismal lack of coordination among different development departments. As a result, there was much overlap in the programmes.
(8) The programmes were implemented uniformly as they were tailored at the central level. The diverse situations at the local level denied the acceptance of these programmes.
When, during the year 1959, the CDP was finally withdrawn from the villages, it gave a relief to the people. During the period, when the project was in operation, the villagers more than often acted as host to various development officials. It appeared that the visits were unending.
The Emergence of Panchayati Raj
There came as drastic change when the Balwanth Rai Mehta Committee suggested for the creation of Panchablishment of Panchayati CDP. The basic argument given for the for implementing the Raj was that people should be given power to rule over the villages. The Panchas elected by the village people would implement the programmes. This will ensure the involvement of the people in the development of villages. The development, thus, under this scheme, was contemplated from the below, from the masses of people.
Keeping in view the role of Panchayati Raj, the Third Five Year Plan was also revised. The Planning Commission in the Third Plan suggested several new strategies for the development of villages. Stress was also given to increase agricultural production. The Third Plan also suggested a new approach to some of the already ongoing schemes. The new form of development programmes included:
(1) increase in agricultural production,
(2) area development programme, and
(3) programme for special target groups.
The three major programmes introduced for increasing agricultural production were the Intensive Agricultural Area Programme (IAAP), Projects for Intensive and Integrated Agricultural Development, and the High Yielding Variety Programme (HYVP) which concentrated on improving agricultural productivity. Some of the programmes were designed to help special areas; for instance, Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP), Hill Area Development Programme (HADP), Command Area Development Programme (CADP) and Tribal Area Development Programme (TADP). The latest programmes introduced in this sphere are the Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP) as well as Regional Development Programme (RDP). However, the third category of programmes included in the Third Plan and subsequent plans were meant for certain special target groups. These programmes included Small and Marginal Farmers and Agricultural Labourers Development Programme, Tribal Sub-Plan, Rural Industries Programme, Rural Artisans Programmes, Crash Scheme for Rural Employment, Pilot Intensive Rural Employment Projects, Employment Guarantee Scheme, Food for Work Programme, Antyodaya Programme, etc.
Programmes for Increase in Agricultural Production
The programmes which are given for rural development have an objective to remove poverty of the people. The official policy of the government has been as under:
Rural poverty alleviation has been the primary concern in the economic planning and development process of the country. … rural development which encompasses the entire gamut of improvement in the overall quality of life in the rural areas can be achieved through eradication of poverty in the rural areas.
(1) Intensive Agricultural Area Programme: Keeping in view the above planning policy in mind, the Intensive Agricultural Area programme (IAAP) was introduced in 1960-61 on the recommendation of the agricultural production team sponsored by the Ford Foundation. It was argued by the committee that there were no reasons in terms of soil and climate for lower yields of the produce. It, therefore, selected one district out of each state on experiment basis for intensive agriculture.
In the year 1964-65, a modified version of IAAP was made. It was implemented in several other parts of the country. The main concern of the programme was growing of special crops. In the beginning, the selection of district was on the basis of assured irrigation facilities, minimum hazards and well-developed rural institutions.
(ii) Intensive Agricultural District Programme: Yet another programme meant for agricultural development was Intensive Agricultural District Programme (IADP). The administrative boundaries of the district had the operation of this programme. The programme could not make any significant achievement. A task force on Integrated Rural Development was constituted by the Planning Commission in October 1971. It submitted its first report on Integrated Agricultural Development Projects in the canal irrigated areas in September 1972. The report highlighted the problems of Command Areas of the River Valley Projects where the realisation of the fullest production potentials could be attempted by mutually reinforcing measures connected with the development of local land and water resources.
The intensive and integrated agricultural development project covered within its operation the following aspects of agriculture:
(1) consolidation of holdings,
(ii) land levelling and land shaping,
(iii) realignment and lining of water courses,
(iv) training and cleaning of nallahs,
(v) provision of drainage of ditches,
(vi) provision of supplementary irrigation facilities from groundwater resources, wherever necessary
(vii) provision of supplies.
(iii) High Yielding Varieties Programme: The High Yielding Varieties Programme (HYVP) has become a popular programme in agricultural development. It is this programme which has resulted into green revolution. This programme introduced agricultural inputs of high yielding quality in the production. These improved varieties were introduced in chemical manure, seeds, implements and cattle. The improved seeds with the help of agricultural technology and in secticides increased the agricultural growth. This programme was implemented in 1966. The new strategy for agricultural development was concerned not only with higher yield but also with greater intensity of cropping. The peasants were encouraged to take three crops a year.
Area Development Programmes Under these three programmes, viz, (1) Drought-Prone Area Programme, (ii) Command Area Development Programme, and (iii) Hill Area Development Programme were started.
(1) Drought Prone Area Programme: The Drought-Prone Area Pro gramme (DPAP) was started in 1973. The objectives of the programme are to (a) minimise the adverse effects of drought on production of crops and livestock and productivity of land, water and human resources through integrated development of the natural resources base of the area by adoption of appropriate technologies, (b) to conserve, develop and harness land, water and other natural resources including rainfall for restoration of ecological balance in the long run; and (c) to improve the economic and social conditions of the resource-poor and disadvantaged sections of society such as landless labourers and women.
The programme is being implemented in 13 states where the conditions of drought are always vulnerable. The effort of the programme is to provide facilities to the peasants who are more than often victimised by drought.
(1) Command Area Development Programme. The second programme within the Area Development Programmes is the Command Area Development Programme (CADP). There has been huge public investment in major and medium irrigation projects. It has been the objective of the government that these irrigation projects are fully utilised by the peasants. This requires that water courses and field channels are properly constructed and planned. this is not done in a scientific way, there is every possibility of waterlogging, salinity and alkalinity. These are some of the problems which result in the absence of proper shaping of earth and making facilities to avoid waterlogging. In the beginning (1966-69) eight river projects were taken for area development. Ten more such schemes were taken during the Fourth Plan period. The area increased with the coming Five Year Plans. The implementation of CADP encouraged multicropping and made it possible for the peasants to take as many as four crops a year.
(iii) Hill Area Development programme: The Hill Area Development Programme (HADP) is specifically meant for hill areas. The major thrust of the programme lies in the identification of backward regions in states with sizeable hill areas and formulation of a separate sub-plan for the development of these ares. Pilot projects were taken up under this programme in Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. The main strategy of development in these projects was the integrated development of agriculture, animal husbandry, horti culture, land development and soil conservation, minor irrigation and other basic infra-structural facilities on watershed basis.
Programmes for Special Target Groups
It was realised by the Planning Commission that there are some groups in the rural society that have been victims of exploitation since the period of colonial rule. For instance, the small and landless labourers have always suffered at the hands of landlords, jamindars, jagirdars and other kinds of intermediaries. Second, there are tribals who have always been dispossessed of their land by non- tribal peasants. Such groups are vulnerable to all kinds of exploitation and bondage. The Planning Commission, therefore, made some development programmes for special target groups. These programmes are discussed below:
(1) Special Programme for Small Farmers and Agricultural Labourers: The small farmers, as defined by the government, are those whose holding is less than two hectares. The new agricultural technology in creased the number of small farmers. To combat this situation, the All India Rural Credit Review Committee (1969) recommended the establishment of Small Farmers Development Agencies (SFDAs). This agency got recognition by the government.
In order to reduce disparities between big and small farmers certain programmes were taken up during the Fourth Plan period. Two of these programmes were meant for (1) small farmers, and (2) mar ginal farmers and agricultural labourers. The small farmers were taken to be those who, with the help of irrigation, provision of credit, sup plies and marketing and application of modern technology, could be made viable. A limit of one to three hectares of landholding was generally adopted in identifying such farmers. Farmers with holdings below this limit were categorised as marginal farmers. As regards agricultural labourer, this category was defined to cover those rural households which derive more than 50 per cent of their income from agricultural wages. For the sub-marginal cultivators and agricultural labourers two sets of measures were contemplated. The first set of measures was in the sphere of land reforms, and the second aimed at the generation of employment through poultry farming, dairy farming and other supplementary employments.
The agencies-in-charge of these projects are corporate bodies registered under the Societies Registration Act. Each agency had a small membership consisting mainly of the representatives of the institutional agencies and concerned district officers with the Collector or the Deputy Commissioner as the chairman. The agencies were expected to utilise the existing field institutions, i.e., the government development departments, local organisations, particularly those of Panchayati Raj and block development and cooperatives.
Although the special programme was initiated in 1969, it started functioning only in 1971-72. The performance of the programme was reported to be much unsatisfactory. There was improper identification and verification of the variants of farmers. Secondly, the number of agricultural labourers was altogether left out. Thirdly, there were several cases wherein the funds were misutilised. In regard to programmes of subsidiary occupations the beneficiaries were not property selected, and supporting facilities were not provided adequately. As a result of this, instead of generating income, they proved to be a liability for beneficiaries, specially in the case of dairy farming and poultry programmes.
(i) Rural Industries Projects and Rural Artisans Programmes Rural Industries Project (RIP) was initiated by the Government of India in 1962-63. Its objective was to evolve appropriate methods and techniques for intensive development of village and small-scale industries. The project was started with the objective to provide employment opportunities and generation of income for the rural poor.
The Rural Artisans Programme (RAP) was also a central spon sored programme for upgrading the skills of rural artisans, adoption of new skills through training of artisans and providing tools at subsidised rate at the end of the training period. There was everything good so far as its objectives were concerned. But, due to some difficulties, it was discontinued in the beginning of the Fifth Plan. However, it was revived in 1978. The programme now is in operation.
(iii) Antyodaya Programme: Antyodaya means the welfare of a per son standing at the end of the queue. The programme provides an opportunity to this last man to rise in status. The scheme was intro duced during the regime of Janata government in 1978. Under this scheme five poorest families in a village were selected. Each Antyo daya family could be given loan and subsidies not exceeding Rs. 5,000. This money had to be utilised for generation of income.
(iv) Rural Works Programme: The objective of this programme is to provide employment to the weaker sections. At a later stage, as an alternative to rural works programme, certain other schemes were taken up in subsequent years to provide employment to the underemployed and unemployed rural people. Some of these schemes are described below:
(a) Crash Scheme for Rural Employment: As an alternative to rural works programme some of the states took up crash scheme for rural employment. The scheme had a two-fold purpose: (1) generating employment for 1,000 persons on an average per year in each district, and (ii) production of assets of durable nature in consonance with local development plans.
(b) Pilot Intensive Rural Employment Scheme: This was an ad-hoc scheme of crash employment. It was given in the form of employment for time being in the construction of rural roads, sanitary wells, school buildings, primary health centres and other construction works of the village.
(c) Special Employment Guarantee Scheme: Special schemes were formulated by some states such as Maharashtra and Gujarat to provide increasing employment avenues in the rural areas. It was also an alternative to the rural works programme. According to it the works proposed to be undertaken under the scheme related to contour-bunding, irrigation, roads and village industry. The Gujarat government’s scheme provided for unskilled jobs to the unemployed workers on different projects.
(d) Food for Work Programme. It was introduced in 1977 by the Janata government. Its objective was to provide employment to the unemployed/underemployed village workers during the slack season and at the same time to create community assets of lasting value and provide cereals at reasonable price. The wages paid to the workers were in kind, i.e., foodgrains.
(e) National Rural Employment Programme. This programme was implemented as a centrally sponsored scheme on a 50:50 sharing basis between the centre and the states. The state government could use some of the procedures adopted in Maharashtra for raising the employment guarantee fund for generating the additional resources needed for implementing such a project. Wages could be paid partly in cash and partly as grain.
(v) Tribal Development Agencies and Sub-Plan: This programme is specially meant for the development of tribal areas. The tribal blocks, according to this project, have to work on somewhat different line from the blocks in the ordinary areas. The tribal habitation pattern is scattered and, therefore, the Tribal Sub-Plan area covers a large number of villages within it. In the Tribal Sub-Plan area, the non-tribal population is also existent. however, the tribal population exceeds more than half of the total population of area.
If we review the new programmes of rural development taken up since the Third Five Year Plan we would find that these programmes are either problem-based, area programmes, target group area programmes or development programmes. These programmes stressed on agricultural production, area development and development of special target groups. Some development works had been done by implementation of these programmes.
However, no effort was made to take into consideration all the aspects of village’s integrated development. Since the Eighth Plan some programmes have been implemented taking an approach to develop the village on an integrated way. The development scheme, designed on the pattern of integrated village development, is enumerated be low.
Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP)
IRDP is described officially as a major mechanism for the alleviation of rural poverty. The main objective of IRDP is to raise families of identified target group below poverty line by creation of sustainable opportunities for self-employment in the rural sector. Assistance is given in the form of subsidy by the government and term credit advanced by financial institutions (commercial banks, cooperatives and regional rural banks.) The programme is implemented in all blocks of the country as centrally sponsored scheme funded on 50:50 basis by the centre and the states.
The target group under IRDP consists of small and marginal farmers, agricultural labourers and rural artisans having annual income below Rs. 11,000 defined as poverty line in the Eighth Plan. In order to ensure that benefits under the programme reach the more vulnerable sectors of the society, it is stipulated that at least 50 per cent of assisted families should be from scheduled castes and scheduled tribes with corresponding flow of resources to them. Furthermore, 40 per cent of the coverage should be of women beneficiaries and 3 per cent of handicapped persons.
The programme is implemented through District Rural Development Agencies (DRDAs). The governing body of DRDA includes local MP, MLA, Chairman of Zila Parishad, heads of district development departments, representatives of SCs, STs and women. At the grassroot level, the block staff is responsible for implementation of the programme. The State Level Coordination Committee (SLCC) monitors the programme at state level whereas the Ministry of Rural Areas and Employment is responsible for the release of central share of funds, policy formation, overall guidance, monitoring and evaluation of the programme.
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