METHODOLOGY IN SOCIOLOGY

(Relevant for Sociology Optional for Civil Services Examination)

Introduction to Methodology in Sociology

Every scholarly field necessitates a methodical approach to draw conclusions: it must have procedures for generating and scrutinizing data, enabling theories to be evaluated, accepted, or rejected. Without a structured approach to knowledge creation, a subject’s discoveries can be dismissed as speculation, or as common sense cloaked in complexity. Methodology focuses both on the specific research techniques for data collection, and the overarching philosophies that guide data collection and analysis.

Methodology in Sociology is not an exception to this overarching principle. One of the significant disputes revolves around whether sociology should utilize the same methods as, or similar methods to, those used in science.

Sociology was born in 19th-century Europe, coinciding with industrialization leading to substantial societal shifts. As societal changes took place, there was an intellectual evolution during which science gained a heightened stature. As science seemed capable of yielding objective knowledge that could resolve human issues and enhance human productivity in unprecedented ways, many pioneering sociologists naturally turned to science for a methodological foundation for their discipline.

However, not every sociologist agrees that appropriating the Methodology in Sociology of natural sciences is appropriate. For these sociologists, the examination of human behavior differs fundamentally from investigating the natural world. People possess consciousness, which means that, from some sociologists’ perspectives, sociology necessitates a methodology distinct from science.

In broad terms, sociology has two main traditions:

1. Advocates for the use of scientific and generally quantitative methods (statistical numerical methods).
2. Proponents for more humanistic and qualitative methods.

However, it was never a given that all sociologists fell neatly into these categories. Moreover, there are not only divisions between these two camps but also within them.

In recent times, some sociologists have questioned the necessity for a rigid separation between quantitative and qualitative methodologies, proposing a blend of the two. Other sociologists have endorsed methods associated with critical social science or postmodernism.

Critical social science often leans towards more qualitative methods but isn’t exclusively connected to such methods. The hallmark of critical social science is that it intertwines research with societal transformation efforts. It opposes the view of many sociologists — including many advocates of the two approaches mentioned above — that researchers should maintain neutrality. Instead, it allies with perceived disadvantaged and oppressed societal groups, striving to develop any methods that may help liberate these groups from their oppression.

Feminists, who are among the most impactful critical social scientists, have posited that distinct feminist methodologies should be adopted.

Postmodernists, who have recently developed their methodological approaches, tend to reject the notion that researchers can uncover some objective truth about the social world. They believe that the best researchers can do is scrutinize the social world from the perspective of its different participants, and deconstruct or dismantle existing societal explanations.

They dismiss traditional quantitative, qualitative, and critical researchers’ claims that it’s possible to determine societal truth. Regardless of the method utilized, researchers will be left with numerous different narratives of the social world, with no particular narrative standing out as superior.

Critical social science and postmodernism will be discussed in more detail later in the chapter, but first, the contrast between quantitative and qualitative approaches will be explored in more depth.

Quantitative Methodology in Sociology Rooted in Science

As hinted in the introduction, certain sociologists have made an attempt to emulate the methods utilized by natural sciences. This invariably leads them to advocate for the application of quantitative methodologies. The earliest known use of such methods in the field of sociology is known as positivism.

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Positivism, Durkheim and the Rise of Sociology

Auguste Comte (1798-1857), a French author, was the first person to use the term ‘sociology’, and he also introduced the concept of ‘positive philosophy’ (Comte, 1986, initially published in the 1840s). Comte proposed a scientific hierarchy, placing sociology at its apex. He was certain that scientific understanding of society could be cultivated and used to advance human life, thereby facilitating a rationally governed society free from the influences of religion or superstition.

 

Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) championed a Methodology in Sociology akin to that of Comte and is broadly considered a positivist. His seminal work, Suicide (1970, initially published 1897), is often cited as an exemplar of positivist research as it adheres to many methodological tenets of positivism. Certain facets of Durkheim’s work will be used to elucidate the positivist approach. Nevertheless, Durkheim was not a strict positivist. As we will see in the following discussion, he did not wholly abide by the positivist principle of restricting sociological study to observable or directly measurable phenomena.

1. Social facts

As a positivist, Comte held the belief that scientific study of society should be limited to gathering data on phenomena that can be objectively observed and classified. He argued that sociologists should not concern themselves with the internal thoughts, intentions, feelings, and emotions of individuals. As these mental states exist solely within the individual’s consciousness, they cannot be observed and hence cannot be objectively measured.

Durkheim concurred that sociologists should limit their studies to social facts. He contended that ‘The first and most fundamental rule is: Consider social facts as things’ (Durkheim, 1938, initially published 1895). This implies that societal belief systems, customs, and institutions – the facts of the social world – should be treated as things, just like the objects and events of the natural world.

However, Durkheim did not confine social facts to only those things that can be directly observed or measured. In Durkheim’s view, social facts encompassed phenomena such as societal belief systems, customs, and institutions. While belief systems are not directly measurable or observable as they exist within human consciousness, Durkheim saw them as existing beyond individual consciousness.

They were not the product of individual choices and could not be modified at will. Social facts, such as the customs of a particular profession, were external to each individual and influenced their behavior. In other words, each person’s choices were constrained by existing customs and practices.

According to Durkheim, society is more than just a collection of individuals each acting independently according to their psychology or mental state. Rather, societal members are guided by collective beliefs, values, and laws – social facts that possess their own existence. As such, social facts drive individuals to act in certain ways. Durkheim’s definition and utilization of the term ‘social facts’ distinguish him from positivists like Comte, despite his adoption of many aspects of positivism.

2. Statistical data

The second characteristic of positivism pertains to its use of statistical data. Positivists believe that the social world can be objectively classified. Using these classifications, they can count sets of observable social facts and thereby produce statistics. For instance, Durkheim (1970) gathered data on social facts like suicide rates and religious affiliations.

3. Correlation

The third step in positivist Methodology in Sociology involves seeking correlations between different social facts. A correlation represents a tendency for two or more things to occur together, possibly indicating the strength of the relationship between them. In his suicide study, Durkheim identified a potential correlation between a specific religion, Protestantism, and a high suicide rate.

4. Causation

The fourth phase of positivist Methodology in Sociology involves searching for causal relationships. If a strong correlation between two or more types of social phenomena is observed, a positivist sociologist might infer that one of these phenomena is causing the other to occur.

However, this may not necessarily be the case, and careful analysis of the data is required before drawing such a conclusion. The correlation between social class and criminality can be used as an example. A number of sociologists have observed a correlation between being a member of the working class and a higher likelihood of being convicted of a crime. This observation has led some (for example, Robert Merton (1968)) to suggest that being working-class may be a factor leading to criminal activity.

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Multivariate Analysis

To tackle the problem of spurious correlation, Durkheim introduced a technique called multivariate analysis. This approach involves isolating the effect of a specific independent variable on the dependent variables. The dependent variable is the outcome (in the above example, Positivism then, believes that by using the scientific method, sociologists can uncover the laws of human behavior.

Once these laws are uncovered, society can be improved. This approach has its roots in the work of early sociologists like Comte and Durkheim. Comte was the first to coin the term sociology and advocated the use of the scientific method in studying society. Durkheim, though not strictly a positivist, followed many of Comte’s principles and is often considered a positivist sociologist. Durkheim’s seminal work, “Suicide”, is seen as a model of positivist research.

The scientific method, as employed by positivist sociologists, begins with the gathering of observable and measurable data. For Comte, the focus should solely be on phenomena that can be objectively observed and classified, discounting internal states of individuals such as emotions and motives. Durkheim agreed with the study of social facts but broadened the scope to include phenomena like belief systems and societal customs, which can’t be directly observed or measured but exist beyond individual consciousness.

Statistical data forms an integral part of positivist Methodology in Sociology. It involves classifying the social world objectively and counting sets of observable social facts to generate statistics. For instance, Durkheim used this method to collect data on social facts like the suicide rate and religious affiliations.

The next stage is to look for correlations between different social facts. In Durkheim’s study of suicide, he found a correlation between Protestantism and a high suicide rate. However, correlation does not imply causation, which is the next stage of the positivist Methodology in Sociology.

Positivist sociologists seek to establish causal connections between social phenomena. For instance, if a strong correlation is found between being working-class and a higher chance of crime conviction, a positivist might suspect that one is causing the other. However, it’s important to examine data carefully before drawing such conclusions. There could be other factors at play, like social mobility due to criminal records or police discrimination against certain classes.

Durkheim used multivariate analysis to deal with such complexities. This technique helps to isolate the impact of a particular independent variable on the dependent variables. With computers and advanced statistical techniques, researchers can analyze the importance of different variables.

Positivists aim to establish laws of human behavior. If causal connections are repeatedly verified in different contexts, they are confident they’ve discovered a behavior law. Comte and Durkheim believed real laws of human behavior could be discovered. For example, Durkheim claimed that the suicide rate always rose during economic highs and lows, while Comte proposed a law stating that societies progress through three stages of theological, metaphysical, and positive.

For positivists and Durkheim, these laws can be discovered by collecting objective facts about the social world statistically, analyzing them, and repeatedly checking the findings in various contexts. They argue that humans respond predictably and consistently to stimuli in the environment, often unaware of the factors shaping their actions, which can be discovered by studying statistical patterns.

This positivist approach assumes a predominantly inductive methodology, starting with data collection, followed by analysis and theory development. The theory is then tested against other data sets for confirmation. If consistently confirmed, they believe they have discovered a law of human behavior.

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Paper-1

FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY

1. Sociology – The Discipline
   1. Modernity and social changes in Europe and emergence of sociology.
   2. Scope of the subject and comparison with other social sciences.
   3. Sociology and common sense.
2. Sociology as Science:
   1. Science, scientific method and critique.
   2. Major theoretical strands of research methodology.
   3. Positivism and its critique.
   4. Fact value and objectivity.
   5. Non- positivist methodologies.
3. Research Methods and Analysis:
   1. Qualitative and quantitative methods.
   2. Techniques of data collection.
   3. Variables, sampling, hypothesis, reliability and validity.
4. Sociological Thinkers:
   1. Karl Marx- Historical materialism, mode of production, alienation, class struggle.
   2. Emile Durkheim- Division of labour, social fact, suicide, religion and society.
   3. Max Weber- Social action, ideal types, authority, bureaucracy, protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism.
   4. Talcott Parsons- Social system, pattern variables.
   5. Robert K. Merton- Latent and manifest functions, conformity and deviance, reference groups.
   6. Mead – Self and identity.
5. Stratification and Mobility:
   1. Concepts- equality, inequality, hierarchy, exclusion, poverty and deprivation.
   2. Theories of social stratification- Structural functionalist theory, Marxist theory, Weberian theory.
   3. Dimensions – Social stratification of class, status groups, gender, ethnicity and race.
   4. Social mobility- open and closed systems, types of mobility, sources and causes of mobility.
6. Works andEconomic Life:
   1. Social organization of work in different types of society- slave society, feudal society, industrial /capitalist society
   2. Formal and informal organization of work.
   3. Labour and society.
7. Politics and Society:
   1. Sociological theories of power.
   2. Power elite, bureaucracy, pressure groups, and political parties.
   3. Nation, state, citizenship, democracy, civil society, ideology.
   4. Protest, agitation, social movements, collective action, revolution.
8. Religion and Society:
   1. Sociological theories of religion.
   2. Types of religious practices: animism, monism, pluralism, sects, cults.
   3. Religion in modern society: religion and science, secularization, religious revivalism, fundamentalism.
9. Systems of Kinship:
   1. Family, household, marriage.
   2. Types and forms of family.
   3. Lineage and descent.
   4. Patriarchy and sexual division of labour.
   5. Contemporary trends.
10. Social Change in Modern Society:
    1. Sociological theories of social change.
    2. Development and dependency.
    3. Agents of social change.
    4. Education and social change.
    5. Science, technology and social change.

Paper-2

INDIAN SOCIETY: STRUCTURE AND CHANGE

INTRODUCING INDIAN SOCIETY

1. Perspectives on the study of Indian society:
   1. Indology (GS. Ghurye).
   2. Structural functionalism (M N Srinivas).
   3. Marxist sociology (A R Desai).
2. Impact of colonial rule on Indian society :
   1. Social background of Indian nationalism.
   2. Modernization of Indian tradition.
   3. Protests and movements during the colonial period.
   4. Social reforms.

SOCIAL STRUCTURE

• Perspectives on the study of Indian society:
  1. The idea of Indian village and village studies.
  2. Agrarian social structure – evolution of land tenure system, land reforms.
• Caste System:
  1. Perspectives on the study of caste systems: GS Ghurye, M N Srinivas, Louis Dumont, Andre Beteille.
  2. Features of caste system.
  3. Untouchability – forms and perspectives.
• Tribal communities in India
  1. Definitional problems.
  2. Geographical spread.
  3. Colonial policies and tribes.
  4. Issues of integration and autonomy.
• Social Classes in India:

1. 1. Agrarian class structure.

• • • Industrial class structure.
    • Middle classes in India.
• Systems of Kinship in India:
  1. Lineage and descent in India.
  2. Types of kinship systems.
  3. Family and marriage in India.
  4. Household dimensions of the family.
  5. Patriarchy, entitlements and sexual division of labour
• Religion and Society:
  1. Religious communities in India.
  2. Problems of religious minorities.
  3. Patriarchy, entitlements and sexual division of labour

SOCIAL CHANGES IN INDIA

1. Visions of Social Change in India:
   • Idea of development planning and mixed economy
   • Constitution, law and social change.
   • Education and social change.
2. Rural and Agrarian transformation in India:
   • Programmes of rural development, Community Development Programme, cooperatives,poverty alleviation schemes
   • Green revolution and social change.
   • Changing modes of production in Indian agriculture.
   • Problems of rural labour, bondage, migration.

3. Industrialization and Urbanisation in India:

• • Evolution of modern industry in India.
  • Growth of urban settlements in India.
  • Working class: structure, growth, class mobilization.
  • Informal sector, child labour
  • Slums and deprivation in urban areas.

4. Politics and Society:

• • Nation, democracy and citizenship.
  • Political parties, pressure groups , social and political elite
  • Regionalism and decentralization of power.
  • Secularization

5. Social Movements in Modern India:

• • Peasants and farmers movements.
  • Women’s movement.
  • Backward classes & Dalit movement.
  • Environmental movements.
  • Ethnicity and Identity movements.

6. Population Dynamics:

• • Population size, growth, composition and distribution
  • Components of population growth: birth, death, migration.
  • Population policy and family planning.
  • Emerging issues: ageing, sex ratios, child and infant mortality, reproductive health.

7. Challenges of Social Transformation:

• • Crisis of development: displacement, environmental problems and sustainability
  • Poverty, deprivation and inequalities.
  • Violence against women.
  • Caste conflicts.
  • Ethnic conflicts, communalism, religious revivalism.
  • Illiteracy and disparities in education.

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