Relevant for Sociology Optional for Civil Service Examination.
Relevance : Sociology Paper -1 , Unit 9- System Of Kinship
Claude Levi-Strauss: The Alliance Theory
- Claude Lévi-Strauss, a prominent anthropologist, developed the alliance theory, which centres on the incest taboo as a universal and fundamental aspect of human social life.
- According to Lévi-Strauss, the prohibition of incest necessitated exogamy, leading to the exchange of women between groups. This theory shares similarities with Sigmund Freud’s work on Totem and Taboo.
- Lévi-Strauss emphasized the negative prescription of incest taboo, asserting that men had to move beyond their core kinship group due to this prohibition.
- Marriage, in his view, is primarily a process of exchange, creating affinity through reciprocal exchanges regulated by positive marriage rules.
- The alliance theory introduces two models of kinship and marriage structures: elementary and complex.
- Elementary structures involve the exchange of women between known groups,
- Complex structures keep the potential spouses for women open within the ego’s group, excluding close kin.
- The kinship system, shaped by various traits like inheritance, affinity, descent, and residence, is seen as a combination of features that result in either harmonic or disharmonic transmission between generations.
- Cross-cousin marriage, especially in bilateral and matrilineal forms, plays a role in defining affinal relations. Lévi-Strauss identified three types of affinal relations: bilateral, matrilateral, and patrilateral.
- He associated cross-cousin marriage with closed or restricted exchange and disharmonic transmission. Matrilineal cross-cousin marriage, involving a man marrying his mother’s brother’s daughter, creates a generalized form of exchange that forms a circle of reciprocal relationships.
- Lévi-Strauss categorized kinship structures into elementary, semi-complex, and complex structures.
- Elementary structures involve positive marriage rules and two forms of exchange: restricted and generalized
- Generalized exchange allows the incorporation of numerous groups but may lead to hierarchical disparities.
- Semi-complex structures, found among the Crow and Omaha native Indians, share similarities with elementary structures but also include negative marriage rules.
- Lévi-Strauss’s model suggests that marriage rules, rooted in the incest taboo, generate social structures by bringing together not only individuals but also groups, regulating natural impulses, and shaping the division of labor based on sex.
- Social kinships refers to relations in which are not necessarily related by blood or marriage and yet share a sense of kinship.
- In contemporary society examples of social kinship would be homosexual families, families formed due to new reproductive technologies and also relations developed due religious affiliation or social group membership.
Differences Between North Indian and South Indian Marriages Based on Consanguinity:
North Indian Marriages:
- In North India, especially among communities in states like Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, and Haryana, there is a strong preference for endogamous marriages, with individuals marrying within their caste or social group.
- Cousin marriages, particularly those involving first cousins, are less common in North India due to the emphasis on caste endogamy. Marrying within the same gotra is often prohibited.
South Indian Marriages:
- In South India, cousin marriages, including marriages between maternal cross-cousins (the children of a mother’s brother) and sometimes even paternal cross-cousins (the children of a father’s sister), are more prevalent.
- Reasons for Cousin Marriage in South India:
- Preservation of Family Traditions:South Indian communities often place a strong emphasis on preserving their cultural and social traditions. Marrying within the family or community is seen as a way to maintain these traditions.
- Social Cohesion:Cousin marriages can enhance social cohesion within communities by reinforcing family bonds and solidarity. They preserve the practices of Hamula which refers to a kinship-based subunit within a caste or community, fostering social cohesion, preserving traditions, and often practicing endogamy in marriage within the group.
- Astrological Compatibility:Some South Indian families believe that cousin marriages are astrologically compatible, leading to a harmonious married life.
- Economic Considerations: Marrying within the family or community may simplify economic transactions such as the exchange of dowry or gifts, as both families are familiar with each other’s social and economic status. The ritual of “Marumakkatha” refers to a kinship system where lineage and inheritance are traced through the female line or mother’s side of the family. It signifies matrilineal descent and inheritance.
Women safety: there are assumptions that if girls are married in same family among cousins or uncles then women usually remain safe.Health Risks of Cousin Marriage: - Genetic Disorders: Cousin marriages, especially between close relatives, can increase the risk of genetic disorders in offspring. When both parents carry the same recessive genetic mutations, there is a higher likelihood of these conditions being expressed in their children.
- Recessive Traits: Close relatives are more likely to share common recessive genes. If both parents carry a recessive gene for a particular genetic disorder, their child may inherit two copies of the mutated gene, leading to the disorder.
- Higher Prevalence: Populations with a tradition of cousin marriages may have a higher prevalence of certain genetic disorders, such as autosomal recessive conditions, which can be more common in such communities.
German Royal Family and Health Issues:
The House of Habsburg: The Habsburg dynasty, which ruled over the Holy Roman Empire and various European countries for centuries, practiced frequent intermarriage among close relatives to maintain power and alliances.
Habsburg Jaw: This practice of cousin marriages led to a well-known example of genetic issues within the family, often referred to as the “Habsburg Jaw” or “Habsburg Lip.” This distinctive jaw deformity was a result of generations of inbreeding.
Health Consequences: In addition to the jaw deformity, the Habsburgs suffered from a range of health problems, including fertility issues, physical and intellectual disabilities, and higher infant mortality rates due to the genetic consequences of intermarriage.
End of the Dynasty: The Habsburg dynasty eventually ended due to a lack of male heirs, in part because of the genetic problems associated with intermarriage. Charles II of Spain, the last Habsburg king, is a notable example of the family’s health issues.
Reference: Static Portion
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Frequently Asked Questions:
1. Question: Define the term “ethnic movement” and provide an example from India.
Answer: An ethnic movement refers to a collective effort by a group sharing common cultural, linguistic, or religious traits, seeking to assert their identity and rights; an example from India is the Khalistan Movement in Punjab.
2. Question: Identify the main objectives behind the Gorkhaland ethnic movement.
Answer: The Gorkhaland ethnic movement primarily seeks to establish a separate state for India’s Nepali-speaking population in the Darjeeling region, advocating for linguistic and cultural recognition and political autonomy.
3. Question: What was the Operation Blue Star, and which ethnic movement was it related to?
Answer: Operation Blue Star was a military action in 1984, aiming to remove Sikh militants hiding in the Golden Temple in Amritsar; it is related to the Khalistan movement, which sought a separate Sikh country.
4. Question: Mention a critical factor that triggered the emergence of ethnic movements in India, as discussed by Dipankar Gupta.
Answer: Dipankar Gupta emphasized that ethnicity is fundamentally a political process, wherein caste and religion, the key components of identity formation, are politicized by leaders for vested interests.
5. Question: What were the primary reasons for the Assam Ethnicity conflicts involving Bodo tribals and Bengali Muslim settlers?
Answer: The Assam Ethnicity conflicts primarily stemmed from issues related to immigration, land rights, and resource allocation, leading to clashes, riots, and evolving relationships among indigenous communities to address challenges.
6. Question: Briefly describe the role of the Dravidian Movement in terms of caste and societal structure.
Answer: The Dravidian Movement, led notably by E.V. Ramasamy, aimed to establish an egalitarian society, focusing on anti-Brahmanism and advocating for equal rights for backward castes, while also introducing reforms like self-respect marriages.
7. Question: Name the prominent ethnic movements in North-East India and specify one common objective.
Answer: Prominent ethnic movements in North-East India include the Nagas’ and Mizos’ struggles; a common objective was to gain autonomy and recognition for their distinct tribal identities and cultural uniqueness.
8. Question: What is the key argument of Gail Omveldt regarding traditional Indian society and multiculturalism?
Answer: Gail Omveldt opposed romanticizing traditional Indian society, arguing that hierarchy has always dominated it and dismissing the notion that multiculturalism is an intrinsic feature of Indian society as a myth.
9. Question: Briefly explain the social hierarchy factor as a contributing element to ethnic movements as suggested by Olzak.
Answer: Olzak suggests that the construction of hierarchies among ethnic communities, which often leads to the suppression of one group by another, is a key factor that can instigate social and ethnic movements.
10. Question: Identify one consequence of the unequal economic development factor within the context of ethnic movements in India.
Answer: One consequence of unequal economic development is the marginalization and underdevelopment of certain groups, leading to feelings of alienation and sometimes initiating ethnic movements as these groups strive for equality and recognition.
GS Related Practices Questions…
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