CASTE SYSTEM

Relevant For Sociology Paper-II :- Caste System

Meaning and Definition

The word ‘caste’ is taken from the Spanish word “casta”. It means “breed, race and a host of hereditary qualities. The Portuguese also used this word to denote the group of people in India known as “jati”. The English word “caste” a variant from the original word. The Sanskrit word for caste is “varna” which means colo+ur.

The caste system is unique to Indian society. It seeks its origin in the “Chaturvarna” system, according to which Hindu society was divided into four main varnas namely, the Brahmins, the Kshatriya, the Vaishyas and the Shudras. This Varna system was mainly based on the division of labour and occupation. The present caste system may degenerated from the earlier varna model. However, Varnas and Castes are not one and same thing.

Various definitions have been put forward for the term caste.

(1) Herbert Ristey: “Caste is a collection of families or group of families bearing a common name; claiming a common descent from a mythical ancestor, human or divine; professing to follow the same hereditary calling and regarded by those who are competent to give an opinion as forming a single homogeneous community.”

(2) C.H. Cooley: “When a class is somewhat strictly hereditary. We may call it a caste.”

(3) Green: “Caste is a system of stratification in which mobility up and down the status ladder at least ideally may not occur.”

 (5) Anderson and Parkar: “Caste is that extreme form of social class organization in which the position of individuals in the status hierarchy is determined by descent and birth.”

Thus we see that the concept of caste is variously defined. However, Ghurye maintains that there is no general definition of caste. In the 3rd century B.C. the Greek traveller Megasthenes highlighted two elements of caste system, namely, (i) there is no intermarriage and (ii) there can be no change of profession. These two factors throw some light on the concept of caste.

Features of caste system:

(1) Segmental Division of Society: The Hindu Society is divided into various castes. The membership of which is by birth. The status of an individual depends on the ritual purity of his caste. Caste is hereditary. Caste status is immutable. There are regular caste councils to regulate and control the behaviour of its members. The governing body of the caste is called Panchayat which takes cognizance of the offences against the caste taboos pertaining to commensality, marriage etc. It used to decide civil and criminal cases during the British regime. According to MacIver, caste is its own ruler. It is a small and complete social world in itself, a quasi sovereign body, all inclusive and marked off from one another and yet subsisting within the larger and wider society. Individual’s first allegiance is to the caste rather than to the community.

(2) Social and Religious Hierarchy: The caste has a definite scheme of social precedence. The whole society is divided into distinct classes placed high and low in a hierarchy. Thus the Brahmins are places at the top of the hierarchy and are considered as pure and superior whereas the shudras are placed at the lowest position and are considered as untouchables. They are subjected to varieties of disabilities. Such a social status is taken for granted. Nobody questions the privileges attached to and denied to these social positions.

(3) Restrictions on Food Habits and Social Relations: Caste displays some commensal taboos pertaining to sharing of food with other caste fellows in order to preserve their caste purity. Each caste develops its own sub-culture. There are restrictions with respect to food sharing and social intercourse. Minute rules are laid down with regard to the types of food which can be accepted and from whom. For example; a Brahmin will accept “pakka food” i.e., food prepared in clarified butter from other community, but he cannot accept “Kachcha” food from any other caste.

The ideology of pollution which is communicated by some castes to the higher caste people put severe restrictions on the level of intercourse. A touch of the lower caste man would pollute or defile a higher caste man. Even the shadow of the untouchables is considered defiling. In Kerala a Nair may approach a Nambudari Brahmin but must not touch him. Moreover, a Tiyan was expected to keep himself at a distance of 36 steps from the Brahmins and a Pulayan at a distance of 96 paces. Even the wells are considered to be polluting if a low caste fellow draces water from the well. Such restrictions on social intercourse resulted in the practice of untouchability.

(4) Endogamy: A man borns and dies in the caste. One cannot change his caste. Every caste is further divided into sub castes. Each sub-castes is endogamous. The practice of endogamy is so rigid that it may be taken as the essence of the caste system. However we find the exception in the form of hypergamy. Apart from hypergamy, only endogamy prevails and a breach of this rule results in ostracism.

(5) Restricted choice of occupation: Every caste is characterised by its occupation. Members are expected to follow the caste occupation. It is hereditary. It is considered immoral to give up one’s traditional occupation. No caste would allow its members to take any occupation which was either degrading or impure. For example; any one who is not born as a Brahmin cannot take up the profession of a priest. However, in the modern times this scene is changing with people practising professions other than their caste occupations especially in the urban scenario.

(6) Civil and Religious Disabilities: In the caste hierarchy upper caste people enjoyed certain privileges and lower caste people suffered from certain disabilities. In general the impure caste people are forced to live on the outskirts of the city. In Southern India certain parts of the town or village was inaccessible for some lower caste people. All over India the untouchables were not permitted to draw water from wells used by the upper castes people. The public schools did not admit impure castes like Chamars and Mahars. The untouchables were not permitted to enter into the temples. A Brahmin could not be punished with capital punishment. In case of imprisonment Brahmins were given a liberal treatment than the other classes.

The following theories attempt to reach at the origin of the caste system.

(1) TRADITIONAL THEORY

According to the Traditional Theory the caste system has a divine origin. Whereas the sociological theory considers caste system as a human endeavour of stratification based on ascription wherein one’s status and role are determined by birth, the traditional theory considers caste system as a normal and natural system. This theory has two versions, namely, mythical and metaphysical.

The mythical version of traditional theory considers four varnas as four castes and holds that these four ‘castes’ have emerged from the different parts of Brahma’s body. It maintains that caste is a naturally determined organization of social functions. It holds that an individual belongs to a particular caste according to the doctrine of Karma and Dharma. According to the Karma doctrine, a man is born in a particular caste because of his deeds performed in his past births. It means that birth in a particular caste is not an accident. According to the Dharma doctrine, a man lives according to dharma if he accepts the norms of his particular caste whereas he violates dharma if he questions the norms of his caste. Living according to dharma is rewarded while its violation is punished. In the formar case the individual is rewarded with a birth in higher and rich caste whereas the latter case witnesses a birth in the lower caste.

The metaphysical version of traditional theory explains the fixed function, hierarchy and such features of caste. Each caste has a separate function determined by the nature and qualities of the caste members. According to the Hindu view, nature or ‘swabhava’ of an individual has two types of qualities, namely gotrika and namika. The former refers tc hereditary qualities whereas the latter are the individual qualities. The ‘namika’ qualities set an individual apart from others whereas the ‘gotrika’ qualities identify him to a particular group. The ‘gotrika’ qualities determine his ascriptive nature and entitle him a status in a caste (jati). This refers to the hereditary membership of the caste system.

Criticism: The traditional theory of the origin of the caste system has been rejected by scholars for two reasons. Firstly, it considers caste as a natural phenomenon. Secondly, it considers four varnas as four caste., This is not correct. The real unit of caste system is not varna but jati. Which is a small endogamous group, following a traditional occupation and enjoying a certain amount of cultural, ritual and juridical autonomy.

(2) BRAHMANICAL THEORY

There are some European Scholars who are of the opinion that the caste system originated and developed in India by Brahmins.

They maintain that the caste system is an ingenious device made by Brahmins. For Brahmins to maintain their supremacy is the social hierarchy. According to these scholars, the Brahmins have obscured the true facts by propagating the divine origin of caste system. In the social hierarchy Brahmins occupy a superior position and other castes are less favoured. It is evident that the caste system is a product of Brahmins to protect their class interests. This theory has been supported by Frenchs cholar Abbe Dubois and Indian sociologist, G.S. Ghurye etc.

Criticism: Firstly, caste system is a product of gradual development of society. Such a powerful and sustaining institution cannot be based on artificial foundations. Secondly, there are instances of lower caste individuals taking up professions of other castes and even to nobility. Thirdly, the position of Brahmins creates confusion that caste is of Brahmnic origin, but we trace the remote origin of caste, we find that no one was Brahmin by blood or Shudra by birth. Everyone was free to attain the highest social position based on merit.

(3) RACIAL THEORY

The racial theory has been advanced and supported by scholars like Ristye, Ghurye and Mazumdar. According to this theory, the caste system developed and crystallized in India through the clash of cultures and the contact of races. Throughout history whenever one nation has conquered another. The conquerors have taken women as concubines or wives from the defeated groups but have refused to give their daughters in marriage to them. When these people are of the same race or of the same colour, complete amalgamation between them soon takes place. But when they belong to two different races and colours, the course of evolution runs on different lines. Then a class of half breeds is formed as the result of irregular unions between women of the higher group and men of the lower groups who marry only among themselves and are to all intents and purposes a caste.

With respect to India the migrant Aryans had their own ideas of ceremonial purity. They considered the original inhabitants as inferior to them. Besides the Arynas were patrilineal in nature and the local population were matrilineal. Therefore, they married the daughters of the aboriginals but refused to give daughters to them. The children of such marriages had to be assigned the lowest position in the society and were called the “Chandals”. Thus the origin of the group of half-breeds and the feeling of racial superiority ultimately became responsible for the origin of the caste system. Ristey holds that the caste system originated due to racial differences and Pratiloma marriage. He has referred to six processes in the formation of caste:

1) Through the adoption of a new occupation either a caste or a sub-division of caste finally develops into a distinct caste.

(2) In archaic times when people had little means of transport and communication, whenever a section of caste migrated to other region they found it difficult to maintain with their parent caste. As time elapsed they were completely cut off from the original group and later developed as a new caste.

(3) Since classical times the adoption of new customs and usages in place of old practices has been a main source of caste formation.

(4) Some castes cherish traditional superiority. Some members of such castes who adopt news traditions and customs separate themselves by taking up a new name and hence the formation of a new caste.

(5) Sometimes either the whole tribe or a section of the tribe converted to Hinduism and took a caste same distinguishing themselves from other.

(6) Sometimes some religious enthusiasts turn their own sect with their own style of preachings which finally develops into a new caste such as Kabirpanth.

Criticism: J.H. Hutton is of the opinion that there is no consistency between racial interpretation and available facts. It does not explain the causes of untouchability. Secondly, he points out that racial theory does not explain the absence of caste system among Muslims and Christians who successively settled in India. These two groups also differed from others culturally and racially. thirdly, Hutton says that hypergamy existed elsewhere too but caste system did not develop there. Finally according to him racial theory explains the origin of caste system only on racial basis thereby ignoring other factors.

(4) OCCUPATIONAL THEORY

The occupational theory has been developed by Nesfield and supported by Denzil Ibbetson. The theory is based on the underlying assumption that there is occupational origin of caste. He holds that in India occupational differences is the basis on which the whole caste system is built.

The technical skills of the occupation was passed on hereditarily and over long years occupational guide came into existence which later on came to be known as castes. The hierarchy in the caste system was the result of the feeling of the superiority and inferiority of the different occupations. For example; the artisan working in metals ranked themselves higher than the basket makers and other primitive callings. With respect to Brahmins, he says that they were specialized in the occupation of sacrifices, hymns and rituals. Since sacrifices are taken as very important and suspicious Brahmins because the most important and respected people in the society. Thus Brahmins were the first born of castes. This model was later followed by other castes. However in the beginning the priesthood was not a monopoly of the Brahmins. It was only where they organized themselves an exclusive privileged class that priest hood became hereditary. And that was the reason other groups in the community by way of precaution, for the sake of defence and privileges, organized themselves into different castes. Thus, it was partly defence motives and partly imitation that other castes became hereditary.

Criticism: This theory has been criticised on several grounds. Hulton says that it is wrong to assume that caste system originated due to differences in occupation. There are castes practising similar occupation but their social status differ. Secondly, this theory totally ignores the importance of religion in the formation of caste. Thirdly, his theory of defence-mechanism does not fit in the case of Vaishyas and Shudras.

Despite these criticism we cannot completely reject the occupational theory. It has some sociological importance.

Sociologically the study of caste system refers to the study of social stratification system with for some particular aspect of stratification. Every human society crystalises into various group when work becomes specialized and the number of occupational roles becomes very great making it difficult to award rewards and prestige. People and their kins with similar occupational soles interact with one another freely and frequently. These people exhibit the qualities of “sub-cultural group”. These sub-cultural groups have different standards of living, moral outlook, socialization patterns and educational level etc. These are called caste in India.

(5) EVOLUTIONARY THEORY

This theory presented by Denzil Ibbetson. He explains the origin of castes as the result of interaction of three forces, namely, tribes, guilds and religion. He says that tribes developed as occupational guilds. Members of the guild later came to function on the religious lines and in course of social evolution developed as caste.

Criticism: This theory also like racial theory does not explain the final cause of the origin of caste. Caste system evolved only in India while similar conditions were prevalent in other parts of the world. Hutton says occupation is a factor in the evolution of castes but not the cause of its origin.

HUTTON’S THEORY OF MANA

According to J.H. Hutton, the caste system originated in the religious customs and rituals of the non-Aryans. He emphasised the primitive conception of “mana” in the formation of castes. He says that “mana” is a mysterious impersonal power attached to individuals, objects and places. It is believed to have powers to harm people. Wherever belief is “mana” prevails, a corresponding belief in the value of taboo as a protective measure is also found. Therefore, taboos were imposed on commensality, inter-marriage and interaction etc. to save the members of one’s tribe from the “mana” of the other tribes. Hutton holds that the tribals consider the food of others as dangerous. This belief led to the origin of commensal Taboos. Similarly other taboos were also imposed to save people from “mana”. He points out that the “mana” principles appears in other religion also. In Buddhism it appears as “iddhi” in Islam as “Kudrat” and in Hinduism it is known as “shakti”. However, it was the social and political impact of Rig Vedic invaders with their graded social classes that was responsible for introducing the principle of social precedence into a society which was already divided into groups isolated by taboos.

Criticism: While criticising this theory D.N. Mazumdar points out that it is absolutely controversial as to what role may be assigned to “mana” in the origin of caste system. This theory does not explain the fact that the belief in “mana” is found in most of the primitive tribes all over the world but it created caste system only in India.

(7) RELIGIOUS THEORY

Hocart and Senart advocated the religious theory. Hocart holds that social stratification originated due to religious principles and customs. Religion was an important institution in ancient times. The King was considered the incarnation of God. The priest Kings accorded different positions to different functional groups.

Senart explains the origin of caste system on the basis of prohibition pertaining to sacramental food. He maintain that certain prohibitions regarding sacramental food developed due to different family deities. The followers of one deity considered themselves as descendants of the same ancestor and offered a particular kind of food as offering to their deity. Those who believed in the same deity considered themselves as different forms those who followed some other deity.

Conclusion: Accepting the multiple factor approach it may be maintained that the superiority feeling of the Vedic Aryans over the natives due to the racial differentiations, occupational distinctiveness, the monopolistic priesthood of Brahmins and the religious ideas of ceremonial purity and pollution was first applied to the local inhabitants of Indian soil. Later on it was extended to other groups on the basis of purity and pollution of certain occupation. These were important factors responsible for the origin of caste system in India.

The geographical and philosophical factors are important yet cannot be given much importance in the interpretation of the caste system. The fissiparous tendency of the groups and the spirit of unity and “we feeling” in each caste was backed by the socio political factors such as lack of rigid military control of the State, the apathy of the ruler to enforce a uniform standard of law and custom, their readiness to recognise the varying customs of different groups as valid and their tendency of allowing things somehow to adjust themselves. All these factors encouraged the formation of caste based on insignificant distinctions.

MERITS AND DEMERITS OF CASTE SYSTEM OF INDIA MERITS OF CASTE SYSTEM

The very survival of the caste system through ages despite the attades on it from various corners to cure the evils attached to it, exhibits the fact that the system has merits. The merits of caste system are as under:

(1) Social Security: Caste provides every individual a fixed social environment. It acts as a permanent body of associations which controls almost all his behaviour and contacts. His caste determines his marital choices and acts as his trade union, his friendly society and his orphanage.

(2) Spirit of cooporation: Caste develops the spirit of cooperation and ‘we-feeling’ among the members. It helps the poor and needy thereby reduces the role of State in this regard. It minimises unhappiness.

(3) Economic Goals: Caste sets economic goals of the individual. Every caste is associated with an occupation and this ensures the future of the new members of the caste and develops a sense of pride for caste occupation as change of occupation is not thought of commonly. (4) Purity of Race: Caste has preserved the racial purity of higher castes through the practice of endogamy.

(4) Purity of Race: Caste has preserved the racial purity of higher castes through the practice of endogamy.

(5) Influences Mental make up: Caste conditions the psuchi of the individual. The caste dictates the customs pertaining to diet, marriage, rituals, occupation etc. to every individual and hence the caste customs and traditions influence his views pertaining to social and political matters.

(6) National Integration : Caste develops class consciousness without creating class struggle. It helped develop the social structure in such a way that within one society people different culture co-existed peacefully thereby preventing the country from splitting up into fighting racial group.

(7) Institutionalization of Functions: Caste ensures various functions which are necessary for smooth functions of social life ranging from scavenging to the Government. Caste does this unique job under the sanction of religious dictum of belief in Karma. The division of labour thus provided integrates the social system as against the European social system where such a division of labour creates tension and division.

(8) Cultural Diffusion Culture is transmitted from one generation to another. Thus the caste customs, beliefs, skills, behaviour, the trade secrets are transmitted and carried on from one age to another.,

(9) Separation of Social Life from Political Life: Caste has successfully maintained the independence of social life from the political life. A Hindu’s intimate life is independent of the political conditions. It has its own religious system and own caste gods whereby functions as a great Church.

DEMERITS OF CASTE SYSTEM

The caste is not without the following evils:-

(1) Labour Mobility Denied: Denied of labour mobility leads to stagnation as one has to follow the caste occupation.

(2) Untouchability: It develops untouchability whereby a major section of the society is no better than slaves. It has created other social evils like child marriage dowry system, veil system and casteism.

(3) Solidarity Refarded: The practice of social segregation between classes and rigid prohibition of social intercourse together refarded the growth of solidarity and brotherhood in the Hindu society. It resulted in disintegration of Hindu society and finally weakened it.

(4) Talent Denied in Selection: Under caste system occupation in hereditary when son assumes the place of father is due course of time. But many a time it denies the choice, talent and skills of the individuals in the matters of job selection. Sometimes an unfit person assumes a position for which he has no requisite qualification or skills due to hereditary nature of occupation. This does not utilise the full talent and capacity of the individual and hence acts as an obstacle to full productivity of human resources.

(5) Promotes Casteism: It has developed casteism. The caste fellows exhibit blind faith to their castes and deny the healthy social standards of justice equality and sense of brotherhood. Casteism creates social animosity and intolerance of others existence. Casteism has become a tour in the hands of politicians who spread hatred and play caste politics.

(6) Non-Democratic : Caste is non-democratic because it does not favour equality between different castes, creed and colour. It creates obstacles in the way of lower caste fellows to come up in the society and develop their total faculties.

(7) Denies Social Progress: Caste system is based Karma theory. People feel that their destiny is fixed and they cannot change their economic status. This leads to a state of inertia which kills their initiative and enterprise. It is an obstacle in the way of social and economic progress.

(8) Does not Promote National Unity: Caste system creates a feeling of detachment among people of lower sections of society. The caste patriotism creates an unhealthy atmosphere which forbids the growth of national consciousness. It is a great hurdle in the way of national munity.

 The foregoing discussion leads us to conclude that despite several merits the caste system has lost its utility in modern India.

It develops a lethargic and stagnant society. Birth determines one’s social status and individual enterprise receives negative encouragement. The closed character of Indian caste system resulted in the low motivation of people and makes the society inert and apathetic.

CHANGES IN CASTE SYSTEM IN INDIA

The caste system in India grew and developed through millenia. The course of evolution and development of this unique institution can be studied by dividing history into (1) Ancient Period, (2) Medieval Period, (3) British Period and (4) Post Independence Period.

(1) The Ancient Period: The ancient period includes Vedic period, Brahmanic period, Maurya period, post-Maurya period and Harsh Vardhana period.

We observe two distinct streams of thought regarding caste system that prevailed during the Vedic period. The Vedic period existed between B.C. According to one system of thought the broad framework of the caste had existed even in the earliest part of the Rig Veda. Rig Vedic society recognised the three caste divisions of Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas. According to this view, Shudra ‘caste’ did not exist during this part of Rig Veda. Rather it was created by the Aryans during the last phase of the Rig Veda. Whereas the other school of thought maintains that these three were not caste but Varnas which were not hereditary but flexible.

The end of the Rigvedic period marks the outset of the later Vedic age known as the Brahmnical age. In this period, the hierarchical system of four varnas was formally established. The Brahmins and the Kshatriyas consolidated their positions in the society. Both struggled over supremacy in the society. The theory of four castes because clearly established and rigid. The class differentiation grew. Khastriya rulers fought among themselves. Brahmins took advantage and consolidated themselves as an exclusive class. Priesthood became hereditary. Brahmins prescribed duties and codes of behaviour and social relationship of man. division of labour because the basis of social specification.

Originally it was class system and not caste system. The racial factor, the occupational bias, philosophy of action and the religious concept of purity and pollution together contributed to the formation of the caste system in this phase. During the Mauryan period the Vedic ritualism was completely ruled out. The caste system could not develop as a rígid institution because social and political atmosphere were not favourable.

During the Mauryan period the Vedic ritualism was completely ruled out. The caste system could not develop as a rigid institution because social and political atmosphere were not favourable.

Mauryan dynasty was ended by a Brahmin Pushyamitra Sunga. This period was a revival period for Brahmnism. Pushyamitra established Sunga dynasty. In this phase equality of law was completely destroyed and caste system developed on rigid lines and assumed a new structure.

The revival of Brahmins was further strengthened during the Gupta period. However, caste system was not so rigidintheis period. The Shundras were permitted to become traders, artisans and agriculturalists. But untouchability existed.

The Harsh Vardhana period saw the similar as to structure. Brahmins dominated and the caste ruled the social structure. Individuals following unclean occupations like butchers, fishermen and scavengers had to live outside the city.

(2) The Medieval Period: The medieval period includes the Rajput period and the Muslim period and it runs between 700-1757 A.D.

The departure of Hasha saw political disintegration and rise of smaller kingdoms under Rajput rulers without any external dangers for around five hundred years. The Indian social system did not change. Society became static and caste system because rigid. Brahmin gave themselves more privileges and permitted flesh, wine and women in worship. The “Maths” established by the Shankaracharya became centres of luxurious life. The system of “devdasi” fostured the growth of temple prostitution which led to the loosening of the moral codes. The presence of personal loyalty to clan and country among the Rajputs and its absence among the common population exposed India’s vulnerability in the face of foreign attacks. A large number of new castes and sub-castes sprang up. Brahmins became more rigid. Brahmin started disintegrating and they came to be known as their territorial limits as Kanyakubja Brahmins, Kanauji Brahmins, Konkan Brahmins etc. Similarly Khastriyas and Vaishyas also followed disintegration. In due course, a large number of occupational castes which originally started only as occupational guilds came to be regarded as distinct castes and sub-castes. Each of them had been driven by petty selfish motives. This had social and political representations.

During the phase of Islamic consequent and consolidation on Indian soil and caste system became still more rigid because Muslims were not absorbed in the elastic Hindufold. Islam was monotheistic and could not compromise with Hindu polytheism. Hindus and Muslims could not mix together. In order to save people from the on slaught of Muslim crusade against Hinduism Brahmins made caste system even more rigid with their control over temples which were than the centres of political cultural, social, ritual and educational activities. Brahmins declared Muslims and all local associates of Muslims as “mallechcha”. Puranas were rewritten making caste system very rigid.

(3) The British Period: The British period includes the pre industrial period and pre-independence industrial period. This period runs between 1757-1918 A.D. and 1919-1947 A.D.

The administrative and socio-economic policies of the British Government coupled with some legislative measures taken brought changes in the caste structure of the Indian society. The British transferred the judicial powers of the caste councils to the civil and the Criminal Courts. Which affected and challenged the authority which panchayats held ever their members. Some legislative measures such as the Caste Disability Removal Act (1850), the Widow Marriage Act (1856) and the Special Marriage Act (1872) also attacked the caste system. The British Government took some social measures to remove disabilities of untouchables which further shock the integrity of the caste system.

During this period some social reforms also attacked the caste system. The Brahmo Samaj, the Arya Samaj, the Prarthana Samaj along with Ram Krishna Mission and Lingayat movement is multiple ways attacked the rigidity of the caste system helped the disintegrating forces to begin.

In reality the British hardly did anything to modify India’s religious and social customs. They maintained a neutral position in this regard. After the World War India experienced industrialization which resulted in the migration of people from rural areas to cities leading to the phenomenon of urbanization. The growth of industries destroyed the village arts and crafts and provided new ways of earning livelihood. Occupational mobility and migration from villages to cities broke down those caste norms which were not related to marriage. The new transportation systems and the over-crowded colonies in the urban industrial centres led to the breakage of some old taboos regarding purity and pollution. However, the impact of industrialization was not uniform and absolute on all salient features of the caste system. For example; it did not affect the customs pertaining to the marriage institution and belief in the caste norms. The authority of the Brahmins was also questioned. Intercaste dining and intermingling weakened the rigidity of the caste system.

(4) Post-Independence Period: After the political independence the main factors which have affected the caste system, besides industrialization and urbanization are the merger of various states, enactment of laws, spread of education, rural-urban migration, spatial mobility, the growth of market economy, socio-religions reforms, westernization and growth of modern profession. Prior to independence some states were strong bastions of the caste system. But in independent India the reorganization of states and the framing of new Constitution for the whole country on the basis of equality, justice and liberty to all persons irrespective of caste, colour and creed and abolishing the practising of untouchability led to the emergence of a new social order wherein caste system no longer functions on rigid lines. On the face of these modernising trends disintegration of caste is one of the main features of contemporary India. Below mentioned factors are responsible for these changes:

(a) Western Education: The religious education of the past supported the caste system. But the concept of equality in western education and its pathy towards the caste system led to the disintegration in the caste structure.

(b) Importance of wealth: In past people gave importance to spiritual well-being. But with the development of material culture-people got fascinated towards material well-being. This fact heavily struck the caste system.

(c) Industrialization: Industrialization produced two major effects on the caste system. Firstly, gathering of people belonging to various castes and creeds in industrial towns made it difficult to maintain social taboos regarding food and social intercourse. Secondly, it preferred skill over birth. Moreover, the influence of caste panchayat was broken in the cities. The bases of caste system began to loose their importance.

(d) Transportation and Communications: Development in this sector initiated inter-communication which shattered the narrow conceptions of village communities. During journeys all were treated equally and hence observance of caste taboos because more and more difficult.

(e) Social Reform Movements: Modern education inspired people to remove social evils and as caste system was the source of all evils, it became the main target of attack at all social reform movements.

(f) Origin of New Social Classes : Development of new industries led to the birth of new classes such as trade unions, political parties, clubs etc. This weakened the caste loyalties. The growth of class consciousness weakened the caste consciousness.

(g) Political Movement: Mahatma Gandhi and his associates worked against the evils of caste system. Their efforts led to the emancipation of down trodden Sudras from caste barriers. The Government took up several legislative measures for their upliftment.

(h) Religious Movement: Religious movement such as Brahmo Samaj, Araya Samaj, Prarthana Samaj and Ram Krishna Mission together worked against untouchability, conservatism and distinction between high and low.

THE PRESENT STRUCTURE OF THE CASTE SYSTEM

In spite of several modifications the caste system has neither disintegrated nor it is disappearing in the present day India. It still functions on religious lines. In the contemporary urban India caste continues to exist in the form of complex networks of interest groups whereas in the rural India caste functions as a system of hierarchically arranged social strata, which are endoganeous and occupationally and ritually specialized. In both the places caste remains an extremely viable social institution.

During the decades following independence the caste structure has undergone serious changes. Though the features like hereditory membership and hierarchy have not changed, yet we observe considerable changes in endogamy practices, characteristic of traditional occupation, in commensal restrictions, in the idea of purity and pollution, in restrictions on social intercourse and in the powers of the caste panchayats. The most important change relates to the desire among the lower castes to improve their condition. As a counter action the higher Castes keeping on trying to make them stick to their societal positions. This has resulted in the heightened prejudices and conflicts among different castes. The conflict is between those who demand quick improvement of their social conditions and those who oppose it.

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