UPSC-Civil Services Exam-IAS
Sociology For IAS “APPLIED SOCIOLOGY TOPICS”
Sociology In Everyday Life
Sociology is the study of society through many theoretical perspectives. The most important lesson of sociology is that society is not an external object to be studied. Instead, all of us are active members of society and constantly influence it. Thus, sociology can be applied in everyday life by all members of society. This article discusses three major theoretical traditions associated with the classical founders of sociology. The theories of functionalism, conflict theory and symbolic interactionism and their applications in everyday life are elaborated upon. This is followed by an introduction to the concept of sociological imagination. The article concludes with examples from the everyday life of a sociology student.
Functionalism
Functionalism proposes that society is a complex system consisting of various parts that work together for smooth functioning. The French sociologist Emile Durkheim compared society to the operation of any living organism. According to this organic analogy, society works similar to a body comprising multiple organs in sync. A single organ such as the heart can only be studied by looking at its relationship with the rest of the body. Similarly, functionalist theorists stated that society must be studied by investigating the relationships of different institutions. Multiple social institutions such as education, legal and family systems work together to maintain order in society. For example, in our daily lives, we adhere to many laws that are stated in the Indian constitution. The Motor Vehicles Act passed in 1988 provides laws that regulate traffic on roads. These are guidelines stated for our safety and protection. Each time we step onto the road with our cars, we must keep in mind to wear our seatbelts, not drink and drive and follow speed limits. Without these rules, there would be chaos on the streets, and our normal everyday life would be largely disrupted. Hence, the legal institution of India is one of many that helps to maintain order in society by socializing citizens to obey laws.
Durkheim emphasized the concept of moral consensus, which was essential to maintain the smooth functioning of society. Moral consensus existed when all members of a society shared similar values and beliefs. Such consensus could be grounded in a particular religion. For example, in India, many Hindus collectively participate in worship, pilgrimages and annual festivals. Functionalism emphasizes that the natural state of society is that of balance and order. This social equilibrium is maintained by moral consensus (Giddens & Sutton 2017).
Robert K. Merton also proposed two types of functions present in every social activity. The manifest function is that which is known to and intended by the participant in a particular activity. However, the latent function refers to an unintended consequence that a participant may not be aware of. For example, the manifest function of attending school is that of obtaining an education. But students often use peer groups to form romantic relationships. Hence, schooling also fulfils the latent function of courtship in the daily lives of students.
Conflict Theory
Conflict theorists like Karl Marx reject the functionalist view of a balanced and consensual society. Instead, they emphasize the importance of divisions in society and the subsequent issues of inequality and power. Marx focused on the class inequalities between the rich (bourgeoisie) and the poor (proletariat). These inequalities are still present in the 21st century. For example, in India business magnate Mukesh Ambani recently became the world’s sixth-richest person by passing Elon Musk, the CEO of Tesla. But while Ambani and his family live in a 27-story skyscraper in Mumbai, more than 1.7 million people in India do not have a house to live in. We interact with the homeless population of India every time we step onto the streets and they beg us for money. Marx blamed capitalism for helping the rich become richer while the poor remained where they were. This is especially true in the case of India where economic inequality is exacerbated through the accumulation of wealth by the rich due to capitalist systems.
Another important example of the conflict theory in India is the caste system. Many students from wealthy backgrounds have often complained against the reservation system employed in prominent universities such as Delhi University. But the reservations made for scheduled castes were introduced as a method to uplift those that have experienced generations of inequality and discrimination. The reservation system affects all students willing to study in public universities. But those belonging to privileged backgrounds must view it as more than an inconvenience and respect why it is still required in today’s age as a solution to caste conflict.
Another influential strand of conflict theory is feminism. Feminists concentrate on gender inequality and sometimes even consider it more significant than class inequality. They focus on issues on both the micro and macro levels. Micro-level issues include looking at women in the domestic sphere or other private situations such as sexual relations. On the other hand, macro-level issues involve the representation of women within legal, government and political systems.
Symbolic Interactionism
Symbolic interactionism is a micro-perspective theory that focusses on face-to-face interactions among people in everyday life. George Herbert Mead argued that language allowed humans to become self-conscious beings.
Erving Goffman introduced the concept of how people in their everyday lives behave like actors performing on stage. He termed this dramaturgical analysis that referred to the study of social interaction in terms of theatrical performance. According to Goffman, people adopted different roles based on their situations and used various behaviours to emphasize those roles. Like on stage, individuals may use props to divide their spaces into the ‘front’ and the ‘back’. For example, a doctor’s office comprises a front region, including a receptionist and waiting area and a back region consisting of their private office and examination room. Such a division of space helps the doctor establish their authority and convey a sense of power to his/ her patients.
Charles Cooley also proposed the idea of the looking-glass self. According to him, people present themselves in their daily lives according to how they imagine others might view them. For example, while going for a job interview, a woman might wear makeup, dress formally and style her hair in a particular manner. This is all done in the hopes of forming a good impression on others. Thus, according to Cooley, a person’s sense of self is developed on the basis of others’ reactions to their presentation.
Sociological Imagination
The American sociologist C. Wright Mills proposed the concept of a sociological imagination in 1970. According to him, to study sociology, an individual must be able to break away from their familiar routines to look at their daily lives from a new point of view. The best example of the sociological imagination is to look at something millions in the world do every day, drinking a cup of coffee. One must look past drinking coffee as a simple refreshment and understand its symbolic value in our culture. While drinking alone, coffee may be a part of your personal routine, often an essential step to start a day. Later on, individuals may gather at coffee shops or cafes to grab a cup of coffee. Here one must recognize that the act of socializing or catching up is far more important than the coffee itself. The next interesting aspect of coffee is that it contains caffeine and is a habit-forming drink. Yet, most societies are accepting of coffee and thus do not frown upon its consumers. Finally, drinking coffee is a hugely social act since it links people across the world. Coffee is mainly grown in poorer countries like Colombia and Brazil and consumed by relatively more affluent countries such as the United States. Hence, the next time you pick up your cup of coffee, stop and think about how you are participating in various social relationships and interactions (Giddens & Sutton 2017).
Another relevant example of sociological imagination in everyday life is of eating disorders and body image issues. Many teenage girls are plagued by anorexia or bulimia. Often these issues are looked at as personal troubles and the girl is given medication to combat these diseases. But eating disorders are in fact social issues that impact a huge proportion of the population. By widening our lens, we can see that it is in fact society’s beauty standards enforced by family, friends and the mass media that lead to the development of such diseases. Hence, by opening up our minds about such issues, we are able to address them correctly instead of incorrectly blaming individuals for public issues.