Functionalism has its origins in the work of Durkheim, who you will recall was especially interested in how social order is possible and how society remains relatively stable. Functionalism interprets each part of society in terms of how it contributes to the stability of the whole. As Durkheim suggested, functionalism conceptualizes society as more than the sum of its component parts. Each part is “functional” for society—that is, contributes to the stability of the whole. The different parts are primarily the institutions of society, each of which is organized to fill different needs and each of which has particular consequences for the form and shape of society. The parts each then depend on one another.
The family as an institution, for example, serves multiple functions. At its most basic level, the family has a reproductive role. Within the family, infants receive protection and sustenance. As they grow older, they are exposed to the patterns and expectations of their culture. Across generations, the family supplies a broad unit of support and enriches individual experience with a sense of continuity with the past and future. All these aspects of family can be assessed by how they contribute to the stability and prosperity of society. The same is true for other institutions.
The functionalist framework emphasizes the consensus and order that exist in society, focusing on social stability and shared public values. From a functionalist perspective, disorganization in the system, such as an economic collapse, leads to change because societal components must adjust to achieve stability. This is a key part of functionalist theory—that when one part of society is not working (or is dysfunctional, as they would say), it affects all the other parts and creates social problems. Change may be for better or worse. Changes for the worse stem from instability in the social system, such as a breakdown in shared values or a social institution no longer meeting people’s needs (Eitzenand Baca Zinn 2012; Merton 1968).
Functionalism was a dominant theoretical perspectivein sociology for many years, and one of itsmajor theorists was Talcott Parsons (1902–1979). InParsons’s view, all parts of a social system are interrelated,with different parts of society having differentbasic functions. Functionalism was further developedby Robert Merton (1910–2003). Merton saw thatsocial practices often have consequences for societythat are not immediately apparent. He suggested thathuman behavior has both manifest and latent functions.Manifest functions are the stated and intendedgoals of social behavior. Latent functions are neitherstated nor intended. The family, for example, has bothmanifest and latent functions, as demonstrated in
Critics of functionalism argue that its emphasis on social stability understates the roles of power and conflict in society. Critics also disagree with the explanation of inequality offered by functionalism—that it persists because social inequality creates a system for the fair and equitable distribution of societal resources. Functionalists argue that it is fair and equitable that the higher social classes earn more money because they are more important (functional) to society. Critics disagree, saying that functionalism is too accepting of the status quo.
From a functionalist perspective though, inequality serves a purpose in society: It provides an incentive system for people to work and promotes solidarity among groups linked by their common social standing.
Manifest and Latent Functions:
The Family
Manifest Functions Latent Functions
(explicit, deliberate) (unintended, unrecognized)
Reproduction Sexual relations outside of
The traditional family may be
Judged as deviant
Transmission of cultural Risk of intolerance of different
Cultures/groups
Care of the young Neglect of public policies
Support working parents
Emotional support Silence around conflicts that
Occur within families
Consumption of goods Transmission of inequality
Across generations as wealth
The property is passed on for
Some and not others