CONTEXT<\/strong><\/em><\/span><\/p>\n Since the nation-wide lock down on March 24th, the reverse-migration of semi-skilled and unskilled workers \u2018on foot\u2019 \u2014 from cities back to their villages \u2014 have received wide attention. Poignant, heartbreaking images are all over the media and there are reports suggesting that as many as 22 workers have died while trying to get back home.<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n Internal Migration Challenges<\/strong><\/em><\/span><\/p>\n The Indian Context <\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n Free movement is a fundamental right of the citizens of India and internal movements\u00a0 are\u00a0 not\u00a0 restricted.<\/p>\n The\u00a0 Constitution\u00a0 states\u00a0 \u201cAll\u00a0 citizens\u00a0 shall\u00a0 have the right (…) to move freely throughout the territory of India; to reside and settle in any part of the territory of India\u201d.<\/p>\n Article 19(1)(d) and Article 19(1)(e), Part lll, Fundamental Rights, The Constitution of India, 1950<\/strong>.<\/span><\/p>\n \u00a0India\u2019s total population, as recorded in the recently concluded Census 2011, stands at 1.21 billion. Internal migrants in India constitute a large population2: 309 million internal migrants or 30 per cent of the population (Census of India, 2001), and by more recent estimates 326 million or 28.5 per\u00a0 cent\u00a0 of\u00a0 the\u00a0 population\u00a0 (NSSO\u00a0 2007\u201308).<\/span><\/strong>\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n Lead\u00a0 source\u00a0 states\u00a0 of\u00a0 internal\u00a0 migrants\u00a0 include\u00a0 Uttar\u00a0 Pradesh,\u00a0 Bihar,\u00a0 Rajasthan,\u00a0 Madhya\u00a0 Pradesh,\u00a0 Andhra\u00a0 Pradesh\u00a0 Chhattisgarh,\u00a0 Jharkhand,\u00a0 Odisha,\u00a0 Uttarakhand\u00a0 and\u00a0 Tamil\u00a0 Nadu,\u00a0 whereas\u00a0 key\u00a0 destination\u00a0 areas\u00a0 are\u00a0 Delhi,\u00a0 Maharashtra,\u00a0 Gujarat,\u00a0 Haryana,\u00a0 Punjab\u00a0 and\u00a0 Karnataka.\u00a0<\/strong><\/p>\n There\u00a0 are\u00a0 conspicuous\u00a0 migration\u00a0 corridors\u00a0 within\u00a0 the\u00a0 country:\u00a0 Bihar\u00a0 to\u00a0 National\u00a0 Capital\u00a0 Region,\u00a0 Bihar\u00a0 to\u00a0 Haryana\u00a0 and\u00a0 Punjab,\u00a0 Uttar\u00a0 Pradesh\u00a0 to\u00a0 Maharashtra, Odisha to Gujarat, Odisha to Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan to Gujarat (UNESCO\/UNICEF, 2012b).<\/p>\n Further, internal migration remains grossly underestimated due to empirical and conceptual difficulties in measurement. Despite the fact that approximately three out of every ten Indians are internal migrants, internal migration has been accorded very low priority by the government, and existing policies of the Indian\u00a0 state\u00a0 have\u00a0 failed\u00a0 in\u00a0 providing\u00a0 legal\u00a0 or\u00a0 social\u00a0 protection\u00a0 to\u00a0 this\u00a0 vulnerable\u00a0 group.<\/p>\n This\u00a0 can be attributed in part to a serious data gap on the extent, nature and magnitude of internal migration. Migration in India is primarily of two types: (a) Long-term migration, resulting in the relocation of an individual or household and<\/p>\n (b) Short-term or seasonal\/circular migration, involving back and forth movement between a source and destination. Estimates of short-term migrants vary from\u00a0 15\u00a0 million\u00a0 (NSSO\u00a0 2007\u20132008)\u00a0 to\u00a0 100\u00a0 million\u00a0 (Deshingkar\u00a0 and\u00a0 Akter,\u00a0 2009).<\/p>\n Internal\u00a0 migration\u00a0 patterns\u00a0 and\u00a0 dynamics\u00a0 intersect\u00a0 with\u00a0 two\u00a0 developments\u00a0 in\u00a0 India\u2019s\u00a0 current\u00a0 human\u00a0 development\u00a0 context.<\/p>\n First,<\/strong>\u00a0<\/span> rapid\u00a0 urbanisation\u00a0 and\u00a0 the\u00a0 growth\u00a0 of\u00a0 second\u00a0 tier\u00a0 cities\u00a0 and\u00a0 towns:\u00a0 increased\u00a0 levels\u00a0 of\u00a0 migration\u00a0 cause\u00a0 cities\u00a0 to\u00a0 face\u00a0 many\u00a0 socio-economic\u00a0 and\u00a0 environmental\u00a0 challenges\u00a0 that\u00a0 exacerbate\u00a0 urban\u00a0 poverty\u00a0 and\u00a0 intensify\u00a0 inequalities\u00a0 in\u00a0 access\u00a0 to income and services, and thereby deepen social exclusion.<\/p>\n Second<\/strong>,<\/span> the expansion of rights based approaches – increasingly enshrined in law – to ensure that basic services are accessible to\u00a0 all\u00a0 citizens\u00a0 is\u00a0 a\u00a0 process\u00a0 in\u00a0 the\u00a0 making,\u00a0 transforming\u00a0 India\u2019s\u00a0 social\u00a0 policy\u00a0 landscape\u00a0 from\u00a0 welfarism to rights-based development.<\/p>\n Due\u00a0 to\u00a0 the\u00a0 lack\u00a0 of\u00a0 analytical\u00a0 refinement\u00a0 in\u00a0 the\u00a0 way\u00a0 that\u00a0 internal\u00a0 migration\u00a0 is\u00a0 defined,\u00a0 design\u00a0 and\u00a0 delivery\u00a0 of\u00a0 services\u00a0 for\u00a0 migrants\u00a0 is\u00a0 hampered.<\/p>\n Migrants\u00a0 continually\u00a0 face\u00a0 difficulties<\/strong><\/span>\u00a0 in\u00a0 becoming a full part of the economic, cultural, social and political lives of society. Regulations and\u00a0 administrative\u00a0 procedures\u00a0 exclude\u00a0 migrants\u00a0 from\u00a0 access\u00a0 to\u00a0 legal\u00a0 rights,\u00a0 public\u00a0 services\u00a0 and social protection programmes accorded to residents, on account of which they are often treated\u00a0 as\u00a0 second-class\u00a0 citizens.<\/p>\n Internal\u00a0 migrants\u00a0 face\u00a0 numerous\u00a0 constraints,\u00a0 including:\u00a0 a\u00a0 lack of political representation; inadequate housing and a lack of formal residency rights; low-paid, insecure or hazardous work;\u00a0 limited access to state-provided services such as health and education; discrimination based on ethnicity, religion, class or gender; extreme vulnerability of women and children migrants to trafficking and sex exploitation (UNESCO\/ UN-HABITAT, 2012).<\/strong><\/p>\n Internal migrants, especially seasonal and circular migrants, constitute a \u201cfloating\u201d population, as\u00a0 they\u00a0 alternate\u00a0 between\u00a0 living\u00a0 at\u00a0 their\u00a0 source\u00a0 and\u00a0 destination\u00a0 locations, \u00a0and\u00a0 in\u00a0 turn\u00a0 lose\u00a0 access to social protection benefits linked to the place of residence.<\/p>\n There remains no concerted strategy to ensure portability of entitlements for migrants (Deshingkar and Farrington, 2009). Planning\u00a0 for\u00a0 migrant\u00a0 families\u00a0 who\u00a0 are\u00a0 not\u00a0 settled\u00a0 but\u00a0 on\u00a0 the\u00a0 move\u00a0 warrants\u00a0 a\u00a0 fundamental\u00a0 rethinking of development approaches and models (Smita, 2007).<\/p>\n Understanding Internal Migrants\u2019 Exclusion<\/strong><\/em><\/span><\/p>\n Migrants\u00a0 are\u00a0 looked\u00a0 upon\u00a0 as\u00a0 \u2018outsiders\u2019\u00a0 by\u00a0 the\u00a0 local\u00a0 host\u00a0 administration,\u00a0 and\u00a0 as\u00a0 a\u00a0 burden\u00a0 on\u00a0 systems\u00a0 and\u00a0 resources\u00a0 at\u00a0 the\u00a0 destination.\u00a0 In\u00a0 India,\u00a0 migrants\u2019\u00a0 right\u00a0 to\u00a0 the\u00a0 city\u00a0 is\u00a0 denied\u00a0 on\u00a0 the\u00a0 political defence of the \u2018sons of the soil\u2019 theory, which aims to create vote banks along ethnic, linguistic and religious lines.<\/p>\n Exclusion and discrimination against migrants take place through political\u00a0 and\u00a0 administrative\u00a0 processes,\u00a0 market\u00a0 mechanisms\u00a0 and\u00a0 socio-economic\u00a0 processes,\u00a0 causing\u00a0 a\u00a0 gulf\u00a0 between\u00a0 migrants\u00a0 and\u00a0 locals\u00a0 (Bhagat,\u00a0 2011).<\/p>\n This\u00a0 leads\u00a0 to\u00a0 marginalisation\u00a0 of\u00a0 migrants in the decision-making processes of the city, and exacerbates their vulnerabilities to the vagaries of the labour market, poverty traps, and risks of discrimination and violence.<\/p>\n Women\u00a0 migrants\u00a0 face\u00a0 double\u00a0 discrimination, \u00a0encountering\u00a0 difficulties\u00a0 peculiar\u00a0 to\u00a0 migrants,\u00a0 coupled\u00a0 with\u00a0 their\u00a0 specific\u00a0 vulnerability\u00a0 as\u00a0 victims\u00a0 of\u00a0 gender-based\u00a0 violence,\u00a0 and\u00a0 physical,\u00a0 sexual or psychological abuse, exploitation and trafficking.<\/p>\n Migrants are further marginalised through negative portrayal in the media, and stigmatisation by municipal and state leaders who exploit communal divides and prejudices.<\/p>\n Myths and Facts about Internal Migration<\/strong><\/em><\/span><\/p>\n A\u00a0 fundamental\u00a0 misunderstanding\u00a0 and\u00a0 lack\u00a0 of\u00a0 recognition\u00a0 of\u00a0 the\u00a0 migratory\u00a0 phenomenon\u00a0 is\u00a0 increasingly\u00a0 at\u00a0 the\u00a0 root\u00a0 of\u00a0 misconceived\u00a0 policies\u00a0 or\u00a0 stubborn\u00a0 inaction\u00a0 regarding\u00a0 internal\u00a0 migration.<\/p>\n Policies and programmes facilitating migrant integration at the destination remain weak at best or non-existent.<\/p>\n Further, migrants are subjected to hate propaganda from local fundamentalists\u00a0 who,\u00a0 motivated\u00a0 by\u00a0 fear\u00a0 and\u00a0 parochialism,\u00a0 blame\u00a0 them\u00a0 for\u00a0 all\u00a0 civic\u00a0 and\u00a0 social\u00a0 unrest at the destination. Clear\u00a0\u00a0 and \u00a0\u00a0consistent\u00a0\u00a0 data\u00a0\u00a0 on\u00a0\u00a0 migration\u00a0\u00a0 is\u00a0\u00a0 urgently\u00a0\u00a0 required\u00a0\u00a0 to\u00a0\u00a0 dispel\u00a0\u00a0 myths\u00a0\u00a0 and\u00a0\u00a0 mis-understanding about internal migrants, as displayed on the opposite page.\u00a0 Benefits of Migrants\u2019 Inclusion in Society\u201cIn our increasingly diverse societies, it is essential to ensure harmonious interaction\u00a0 among\u00a0 people\u00a0 and\u00a0 groups\u00a0 with\u00a0 plural,\u00a0 varied\u00a0 and\u00a0 dynamic\u00a0 cultural\u00a0 identities\u00a0 as\u00a0 well\u00a0 as\u00a0 their\u00a0 willingness\u00a0 to\u00a0 live\u00a0 together.\u00a0 Policies\u00a0 for the inclusion and participation of all citizens are guarantees of social cohesion, the vitality of civil society and peace.\u201d<\/p>\n From Article 2, UNESCO Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity, 2001 <\/strong><\/span>Internal\u00a0 migration\u00a0 is\u00a0 an\u00a0 integral\u00a0 part\u00a0 of\u00a0 development\u00a0 and\u00a0 cities\u00a0 are\u00a0 important\u00a0 destinations\u00a0 for\u00a0 migrants.<\/p>\n The\u00a0 rising\u00a0 contribution\u00a0 of\u00a0 cities\u00a0 to\u00a0 India\u2019s\u00a0 GDP\u00a0 would\u00a0 not\u00a0 be\u00a0 possible\u00a0 without\u00a0 migration and migrant workers. Some of the important sectors in which migrants work include: construction, brick kiln, salt pans, carpet and embroidery, commercial and plantation agriculture and\u00a0 variety\u00a0 of\u00a0 jobs\u00a0 in\u00a0 urban\u00a0 informal\u00a0 sectors\u00a0 such\u00a0 as\u00a0 vendors,\u00a0 hawkers,\u00a0 rickshaw\u00a0 puller,\u00a0 daily\u00a0 wage workers and domestic work (Bhagat, 2012).<\/p>\n Estimates\u00a0 of\u00a0 the\u00a0 domestic\u00a0 remittance\u00a0 market\u00a0 are\u00a0 roughly\u00a0 USD\u00a0 10\u00a0 billion\u00a0 for\u00a0 2007-08\u00a0 (Tumbe,\u00a0 2011). Evidence reveals that with rising incomes, migrant remittances can encourage investment in human capital formation, particularly increased expenditure on health and, to some extent, on education (Deshingkar and Sandi, 2012).<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n \u00a0<\/strong>Many positive impacts of migration remain unrecognised.<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n Migrants are indispensable and yet invisible\u00a0 key\u00a0 actors\u00a0 in\u00a0 socially\u00a0 dynamic,\u00a0 culturally\u00a0 innovative\u00a0 and\u00a0 economically\u00a0 prosperous\u00a0 societies.<\/p>\n An\u00a0 independent\u00a0 study\u00a0 examining\u00a0 the\u00a0 economic\u00a0 contribution\u00a0 of\u00a0 circular\u00a0 migrants\u00a0<\/strong> based on major migrant employing sectors in India revealed that they contribute 10 per cent to\u00a0 the\u00a0 national\u00a0 GDP\u00a0 (Deshingkar\u00a0 and\u00a0 Akter,\u00a0 2009).<\/p>\n \u00a0In\u00a0 particular,\u00a0 women\u00a0 migrants\u2019<\/strong> , Social Inclusion\u00a0 of Internal Migrants in India contribution at the destination remains unacknowledged, despite the fact that they shoulder the\u00a0 double\u00a0 burden\u00a0 of\u00a0 livelihood\u00a0 (being\u00a0 often\u00a0 engaged\u00a0 as\u00a0 unregistered,\u00a0 unpaid\u00a0 and\u00a0 therefore\u00a0 invisible\u00a0 workers)\u00a0 and\u00a0 household\u00a0 work,\u00a0 in\u00a0 the\u00a0 absence\u00a0 of\u00a0 traditional\u00a0 family-based\u00a0 support\u00a0 systems.<\/p>\n Migrants bring back to source locations a variety of skills, innovations and knowledge,<\/strong> known as\u00a0 \u2018social\u00a0 remittances\u2019,<\/strong>\u00a0 including\u00a0 changes\u00a0 in\u00a0 tastes,\u00a0 perceptions\u00a0 and\u00a0 attitudes,\u00a0 such\u00a0 as\u00a0 for\u00a0 example,\u00a0 a\u00a0 lack\u00a0 of\u00a0 acceptance\u00a0 of\u00a0 poor\u00a0 employment\u00a0 conditions,\u00a0 low\u00a0 wages\u00a0 and\u00a0 semi-feudal\u00a0 labour\u00a0 relationships,\u00a0 and\u00a0 improved\u00a0 knowledge\u00a0 and\u00a0 awareness\u00a0 about\u00a0 workers\u2019\u00a0 rights\u00a0 (Bhagat,\u00a0 2011).<\/p>\n Migration\u00a0 may\u00a0 provide\u00a0 an\u00a0 opportunity\u00a0 to\u00a0 escape\u00a0 caste\u00a0 divisions<\/strong><\/span>\u00a0 and\u00a0 restrictive\u00a0 social\u00a0 norms,\u00a0 and\u00a0 work\u00a0 with\u00a0 dignity\u00a0 and\u00a0 freedom\u00a0 at\u00a0 the\u00a0 destination\u00a0 (Deshingkar\u00a0 and\u00a0 Akter,\u00a0 2009).<\/p>\n Women left behind enjoy empowerment<\/strong><\/span> effects, with increased interaction in society, including their\u00a0 participation\u00a0 as\u00a0 workers\u00a0 and\u00a0 as\u00a0 household\u00a0 decision-makers\u00a0 (Srivastava,\u00a0 2012a).<\/p>\n Internal\u00a0 migration can expand people\u2019s freedoms and capabilities, and make substantial contributions to human development in terms of improved incomes, education and health (UNDP, 2009).<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n For more such notes, Articles, News & Views Join our Telegram Channel.<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n![\"The](\"https:\/\/images.slideplayer.com\/24\/7229480\/slides\/slide_7.jpg\")
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