\n\n<\/span>Modernization of Indian Tradition<\/span><\/span><\/h2>\nModernization is a composite concept It is also an ideological concept. The models of modernization covary with the choice of ideologies. The composite nature of this concept renders it pervasive in the vocabulary of social sciences and evokes its kinship with concepts like development, growth, evolution and progress. In the book on\u00a0Essays on Modernization in India Yogendra Singh<\/strong>\u00a0has analyzed the varied and complex processes involved in the modernization in India, the forces released by it and their bearing on the stability, creativity and development in India as a dynamic nation and composite civilization.<\/span><\/p>\nThe emphasis on historicity in preference to universality defining the context of modernization the pre-eminence of structural changes in society to render the adaptive process of modernization successful in the developing countries particularly India and the eclectic nature of cultural and ideological response of India to the challenges of modernization represent some of the unifying principles. Singh portrays the challenges and contradictions that India encounters in the course of its modernization.<\/span><\/p>\nModernization is a process associated with the sweeping changes that took place in the society, particularly social, economic, political and cultural changes. It represents substantial breaks with traditional society. Modernization is an idea before it is a process. As it is an idea, there is no agreement among social scientists on its meaning and interpretation. The concept of modernization, emerged as an explanation of how Western countries\/ societies developed through capitalism.<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\nAccording to this approach,\u00a0modernization depends primarily on introduction of technology and the knowledge required making use of it.\u00a0<\/strong>Besides, several social and political prerequisites have been identified to make modernization possible. Some of these prerequisites are:<\/span><\/p>\n\n- Increased levels of education;<\/span><\/li>\n
- Development of mass media;<\/span><\/li>\n
- Accessible transport and communication;<\/span><\/li>\n
- Democratic political institutions;<\/span><\/li>\n
- More urban and mobile population;<\/span><\/li>\n
- Nuclear family in place of extended family;<\/span><\/li>\n
- Complex division of labour;<\/span><\/li>\n
- Declining public influence of religion, and;<\/span><\/li>\n
- Developed markets for exchange of goods and services in place of traditional ways of meeting such needs.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n
Modernization is, thus, supposed to be the result of the presence of these prerequisites in the social system.<\/strong>\u00a0It is clear that the term modernization has been used here in a very broad sense. We, therefore, find different views about the scope and area to be covered by the concept of modernization.<\/span><\/p>\nDebate on Concept of Modernization<\/span><\/h3>\n\n- Some sociologists limit modernization to its structural aspect, others emphasise its cultural dimension. A few studies highlight the issue of political modernization and still others analyze its psychological meaning.<\/strong>\u00a0Of course, the treatment of the concept in terms of it being a process of social change is found in writings of many scholars.<\/span><\/li>\n
- Daniel Thorner<\/strong>\u00a0in his essay on \u2018Modernization\u2019 explains the modernization in these words:\u00a0\u201cmodernization is the current term for an old process of social change whereby less developed society\u2019s acquired characteristics common to more developed societies.\u201d He further writes \u201cModernization, therefore, is the process of social change in which development is the economic component\u201d.<\/strong><\/span><\/li>\n
- Obviously this understanding of the term corresponds with the meaning which we have given to the term at the beginning of our discussion. Accordingly,\u00a0modernization is a process of change, which takes a country from underdevelopment to development It produces social environment for economic development.\u00a0<\/strong>The growths in industrialization, urbanization, national income and per capital income are taken as criteria of development.<\/span><\/li>\n
- However,\u00a0while accepting the economic criteria of development, some sociologists have added non-economic criteria to judge development. They argue that rising output alone is not sufficient to assess the level of development.\u00a0<\/strong>A society has to move from rising output to self-sustaining growth. Therefore, non-economic criteria such\u00a0as the level of education, function of media, growth of communication and social norms conducive to change have to be taken into consideration.<\/strong><\/span><\/li>\n
- The meaning of modernization given above incorporates, primarily, structural aspects of change. In other words, under modernization structural transformation takes place in economy, polity and social institution. It is to be noted here that the concept of modernization has also been explained in cultural terms. In cultural term, modernization implies change in values and attitudes.<\/span><\/li>\n
- Modernity involves values and norms that are universal in nature. Explaining this aspect of modernization Yogendra Singh suggests that\u00a0\u2018modernization implies a rational attitude towards issues and their evaluation from a universal view point\u2019.\u00a0<\/strong>Thus, technological advancement and economic growth are not the sole criterion to judge the level of modernization of the society. The commitment to scientific world view and humanistic ideas are equally important.<\/span><\/li>\n
- Moreover, the idea of modernization has also been analyzed in terms of the paired concepts of tradition and modernity. It has been argued that\u00a0modernity stands as opposite to tradition. In this sense, all the underdeveloped societies are characterized as traditional and the developed societies as modern. Modernization, thus, implies a change from tradition to modernity. Change occurs according to this view, in predicable direction. In other words, in order to modernize, every society has to follow the same direction and adopt a similar path.<\/strong>\u00a0All the existing values and structures have to be replaced by the new values and structures.<\/span><\/li>\n
- Nonetheless, sociologists from the developing countries are critical of this understanding of modernization.\u00a0They maintain that modernization does not stand as a polar opposite to tradition. Traditional values and institutions are not necessarily discarded while taking up new values in the process of change. Society adopts new values because they are considered more efficient and rewarding.\u00a0<\/strong>In view of this, these sociologists hold that modernization would develop typical forms in different societies. Patterns of modernization, thus, may vary from society to society. The discussion shows that processes of modernization involve both structural and cultural dimensions.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n
Tradition:<\/span><\/h3>\nAccording to Yogendra Singh,\u00a0tradition refers to those \u2018value-themes\u2019 which encompass the entire social system of Indian society prior to the beginning of modernization. These value themes were organized on the principles of hierarchy, holism, continuity and transcendence. These four value themes were deeply interlocked with other elements of Indian social structure:<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n\n- Hierarchy<\/strong>\u00a0was engrained in the system of caste and subcaste stratification. It was also there in the Hindu concepts of nature, Occupational lifecycles [Ashramas] and moral duties [Dharmas].<\/span><\/li>\n
- Holism<\/strong>\u00a0implied a relationship between individual and group in which the former was encompassed by the later in respect of duties and rights. Here precedence was given to community or sangha, not the individual. This over shadowing of individual by collectivity persisted all along the line of traditional social structure, e.g. family, village community, caste and nation.<\/span><\/li>\n
- Continuity in Hinduism<\/strong>\u00a0was symbolized by principles of karma, transmigration of soul and a cyclical view of change. Communalism in traditional social system was reinforced through the value system of continuity.<\/span><\/li>\n
- The principle of transcendence\u00a0<\/strong>also posited that legitimating of traditional values could never be challenged on grounds of rationality derived from the non-sacred or profane scales of evaluation. It formed a super concept contributing to integration as well as rationalization of the other value themes of the tradition.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n
The organization of tradition based on these value-components could not be called typical only of the Indian society, since at one level similar phenomenon also existed in the traditional West The divergence between the two traditions, however, arose from their unique social heritage, existential situation and historicity of circumstances.<\/span><\/p>\nModernization of Indian Tradition:<\/span><\/h3>\nSome sociologists make a distinction between social change and modernization in order to assess the nature of change in the traditional Indian society.\u00a0Though, social change occurred in traditional India. It was essentially pre-modern in nature. One traditional institution was just replaced by the other and no basic structural change took place in social system and culture.<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\nHistorically,\u00a0modernization in India started from the establishment of the British rule and had continued even after the independence.\u00a0<\/strong>The nature and direction of modernization during these two phases have been different.<\/span><\/p>\nInitially, the contact with British led to growth of a modernizing sub-culture or Little tradition of Westernization,<\/strong>\u00a0especially during the seventeenth century in Bengal, Madras and Bombay, where a small nucleus of interpreters, trader-cum-middlemen emerged who were slowly being socialized to Western ways.\u00a0<\/strong>Subsequently, there also emerged sects which emphasized assimilation of Western cultural norms, and Western modes of learning (e.g. Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, etc.); these also ran a crusade against obscurantism in Hindu traditions. These movements on one hand and the consolidation of the British power towards the middle of the nineteenth century on other finally led to the institution of a modernizing Great tradition.\u00a0Its components were :<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n\n- The contact with the West brought about far reaching changes in social structure and cultural institutions.\u00a0Changes were witnessed in almost all-important areas of life. The British administration introduced new arrangements in legal agrarian, educational and administrative domains.<\/strong>\u00a0Most of these led to structural modernization.<\/span><\/li>\n
- For instance,\u00a0the bureaucratic system of administration and judiciary introduced by them were based on modern rational norms, which replaced the traditional Indian legal norms, based on the principle of hierarchy and ascription.<\/strong><\/span><\/li>\n
- A similar transformation took place in the system of education and agrarian structure.<\/strong>The Western system of education was introduced towards the middle of the nineteenth century and expanded significantly thereafter.<\/span><\/li>\n
- New patterns of land settlements such as Zamindari, Ryotwari and Mahalwari covering the whole of British India resulted in systematization of revenue administration.<\/strong><\/span><\/li>\n
- Some other areas experiencing modernizing trends were industrialization, urbanization, transport and communication, army and the emergence of industrial working class and so forth.<\/strong><\/span><\/li>\n
- The emergence and growth of a nationalist political leadership was also the result of growing modernization of Indian society.<\/strong>\u00a0In fact the nationalist leadership became so strong that freedom movement itself generated a new culture of modernization.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n
It is apparent from the above that the colonial phase of modernization created wide networks of structure and culture which were modern and had an all India appeal<\/strong>. There was, however, one important feature of Indian modernization during the British-period The growth of this process was selective and segmental. It was not integrated with the micro-structures of Indian society, such as family, caste and village community. At these levels, the British by and large followed a policy of least interference, especially after the rebellion of1857. Moreover, some British administrators were wrongly impressed by the staticness and autonomy of these microstructures compared with the rest of the Indian society. This was especially so about the notion of village community and importance attributed to caste. For a long time caste and ethnic factors were given recognition in recruitment of officers to army and middle and lower ranks of bureaucracy. Later, in the twentieth century, as the nationalist movement gathered momentum, a communal electorate system was introduced. These historical factors have deeply influenced the process of modernization which followed during the post-colonial period. It increased the contingency of traditional institutions and symbolisms to the Indian process of modernization.<\/span><\/p>\nFreedom movement ushered in a new political culture of modernization. At its centre was the personality of Mahatma Gandhi whose one foot was always deeply embedded in tradition. His emergence during the peak of Westernization process in India signifies an orthogenetic response of Indian tradition to the new challenges of social change. Gandhi successfully mobilized Indian people for the attainment of freedom, but he could not, however, avert one serious breakdown in the process\u2026 the partition of India into two independent nations. As we mentioned above, it followed from the uneven growth of subcultural traditions of modernization in Hinduism and Islam, each conditioned by unique historicity of their own. The quest for a separate nationhood by the Muslim community in India reflected a crisis of aspiration along with that of confidence.<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\nAfter the independence<\/strong>\u00a0modernization process has undergone some fundamental changes. Every domain of social system is under the active influence of modernizing process. Modernization has, now, become an integral part of the developmental strategy. Now modernization has been envisaged for all levels of cultural and structural systems. Discontinuity in modernization between macro-structures and micro-structures and between the Little and Great traditions, as during the British regime, has now been consciously abolished.<\/span><\/p>\n\n- The political system\u00a0<\/strong>has assumed a new shape after adoption of the parliamentary form of government based on adult franchise. Political parties have emerged as powerful organs of the system. Thus, democratic political structure has effectively led to increasing political consciousness among the people. The process of politicization has further, been accelerated through the Panchayat Raj institutions.<\/span><\/li>\n
- The foundations of traditional\u00a0family structure<\/strong>\u00a0have come under influence of legal reforms in marriage and inheritance. The family introduced equalitarian norms in family leading to raised status of women.<\/span><\/li>\n
- Community Development Projects have carried the cultural norms and role-structures of modernity to each and every\u00a0village<\/strong>\u00a0in India, and this, coupled with introduction of land reforms and elective village panchayats, has initiated villagers to a bureaucratic form of participation in local level management and administration of justice.<\/span><\/li>\n
- Similarly,\u00a0caste<\/strong>\u00a0has assumed new functional roles. It has acquired an associational character. New consciousness has emerged among dalits. Increasing role of caste in politics is a pointer to this trend<\/span><\/li>\n
- Moreover,\u00a0land reforms,<\/strong> too, have brought structural transformation in agrarian social structure. However, it is pertinent to call attention to the fact that modernization in India has not been uniformly progressive movement. Two crucial issues may be pointed out in this regard:<\/span>\n
\n- First<\/strong>\u00a0in the process of modernization several traditional institutions and activities have been reinforced\u00a0For example,<\/strong>\u00a0religious preachers are using modern media to spread their ideas. Now, there are television channels in India exclusively developed to religious preaching. Caste associations are using new modes of communication to consolidate their position.<\/span><\/li>\n
- Second\u00a0<\/strong>inconsistencies are visible in patterns of modernization. Though structural change is witnessed in family, joint family loyalties and norms still prevail. Democratic participation is increasing despite of increasing caste conflicts.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n
Thus, modernization in India has not thoroughly dispensed with traditional institutions.\u00a0Yogendra Singh\u00a0<\/strong>has, appropriately, highlighted this fact in his study entitled\u00a0Modernization of Indian Tradition<\/strong>. He writes, \u201cThe form of traditional institutions may remain intact but their substance might undergo major transformations incorporating modernization.\u201d In this sense modernization process in India has acquired a typical form. Traditional institutions have displayed their potential for adaptations in course of change.<\/span><\/p>\nContinuity and breakdowns in modernization in India<\/span><\/h3>\nAccording to Eisenstaedt,<\/strong>\u00a0modernization, in its initial stages in India, did not lead to any serious breakdown because of the peculiar structural characteristics of the Indian society. Here, cultural system was fairly independent of political system.\u00a0Louis Dumont writes<\/strong>: This domain of polity or artha is, in the dominant tradition, relatively autonomous with regard to absolute values; there was also independence between the political system and the system of caste stratification.\u2019 Castes had their own panchayats and plural traditions, and similarly there also existed autonomy for groups and regional communities.\u00a0This inter-structural autonomy facilitated assimilation of modernizing innovations, without introducing major breakdown.<\/strong>\u00a0Modernity, however, mainly developed as a sub-culture without pervasive expansion in all sectors of life.<\/span><\/p>\nThe colonial phase of modernization did not seriously articulate many structural challenges which now with the totalization of this process in free India implies<\/strong>. As segmental nature of modernization becomes encompassing, relevance of structural autonomy ceases to operate as a shock absorber.\u00a0Changes in political system begin increasingly to impinge upon the system of stratification (caste, class, ethnic communities), and these together create serious stresses for the cultural system as a whole. The cultural pre-requisites of a comprehensive modernization necessitate adaptive changes in the system of values which come in direct confrontation with tradition cultural values and norms.<\/strong>\u00a0For instance, secularism, untouchability, non-parochialism are some cultural demands of modernization in contemporary India which its traditional value system continues to resist\u00a0Important trends of social and cultural change in India which are relevant to the process of modernization are,<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n\n |
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