\n\n<\/span>Robert K. Merton<\/span><\/span><\/h2>\n<\/span>Latent and Manifest functions, Conformity and Deviance, Reference Groups:<\/span><\/span><\/h2>\nMerton is an American Sociologist, a one time student and famous critic of Talcott Parsons. Among the wide range of ideas to which he contributed, the important ones are relating to \u00a0The nature of sociological theory and a recodification of the functional approach. <\/strong>Most of his writings have been in essay form. An important compilation of these essays is \u2018The social theory and social structure\u2019.<\/strong>\u00a0He was a distinguished sociologist perhaps best known for having coined the phrase \u201cself-fulfilling prophecy.\u201d He also coined many other phrases that have gone into everyday use, such as \u201crole model\u201d and \u201cunintended consequences\u201d. He was heavily influenced by Pitrim Sorokin who tried to balance large-scale theorizing with a strong interest in empirical research and statistical studies. This and Paul Lazarsfeld influenced Merton to occupy himself with middle-range theories.<\/span><\/p>\nMerton launched a critique of Parson\u2019s functional strategy or building sociological theory. At the heart of his criticism was\u00a0Merton\u2019s contention that parsons\u2019 concern for developing an all encompassing system of concepts would prove both futile and sterile. For merton such grand theoretical schemes are premature, since the theoretical and empirical ground work necessary for their completion had not been performed<\/strong>\u00a0In the absence of these foundations what passes for sociological theory in Merton\u2019s view consists of general orientation towards data, suggesting types of variable which sociologists must somehow take into account rather than clearly formulated statements of relationships between specified variables.<\/span><\/p>\nAccording to Merton, Sociology, in the present state of its development, needs theories of the<\/span>
\nMiddle Range.\u00a0Such theories would be grounded in empirical data and at the same time should use concepts which are clearly defined and operationalized. Middle range theories are so formulated that specific and verifiable hypothesis can be deduced from these theories and can be subjected to empirical verification<\/strong>\u00a0Further, Merton suggested that the functional approach would be utilized in formulating the theories of middle range. Thus the functional approach for Merton was primarily a method for sociological research in order to build theories.<\/span><\/p>\nMerton presented the steps involved in functional approach in the form of a systematic arrangement known as the functional paradigm.<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\nTheories of the Middle Range:<\/span><\/h3>\n\n- Middle range theories of R.K Merton came as rejection of mega theory of Parsonian sociology. His\u00a0theory advocates that theory building in sociology should not be governed by intellectual aggression or academic speculation. Sociological theories cannot afford to be rogue, unrealistic, jargon focused and simply logical. Rather theories are developed in sociology to arrange the empirical facts in a consolidated manner. Hence sociological theories should be fact driven. The social theories should be coming out of facts to explain the facts in a systematic manner<\/strong>. Instead of being concerned about mega speculations that there is a social system where there is exchange, negotiation, convergence, consequently control and integration sociology must look into the actual problems and issues related to empirical situations.<\/span><\/li>\n
- During 1960s in America, political corruption, ethnic conflict, deviant behaviour was largely manifested and Merton took interest in studying them and explained all the emergent conditions using simply designed theoretical frameworks.<\/strong>\u00a0Subsequently he identified these theories as middle range theories. As a reaction to mega theories Merton advocates that these theories are highly speculative and do not correspond to the empirical realities. They make an attempt to study every possible dimension of social reality that is not possible in the field of sociology. The degree of abstraction is quite high when concepts are chosen to develop such theories therefore these kind of mega theories do not have much of relevance to understand the essence of social reality. Hence sociology must have to reject mega theoretical constructs replacing them by middle range theories.<\/span><\/li>\n
- Merton is not comfortable with the use of natural science theories in the field of sociology.<\/strong>\u00a0He advocates that theories in natural science come out of cumulative research made on a given problem by large body of scholars in time and space. It is possible on part of a natural scientist to modify, amend or revise the theories of his predecessors applying such theories to contemporary problems and issues. Natural phenomena being static, cumulative research on them become possible and a broad agreement among the researchers studying the same problem gives rise to the growth of unified theories in the field of natural sciences.<\/span><\/li>\n
- In the field of sociology the form of capitalism, patterns of democracy, role of family as a group keeps changing in time and space. Therefore cumulative research should largely speak about diversity, variabilities present in their structure and functions for which mega theories in sociology may be necessity to natural science but it is absolutely unwanted for sociological research. Sociology must have to go for middle range theories than striving for scientific status extending natural science theories into the field of sociological research.\u00a0<\/strong>Sociology should not be compared with natural sciences. Merton borrows substantive ideas from sociology of Weber as the basic problem with ideal type construct is that it asserts that totality of reality cannot be studied by sociology therefore sociology must have to study the essence of reality. To Merton sociology is encountering with the problem of identification of the issues for conducting research that needs to be resolved. The weberian sociology is committed to macroscopic issues that are difficult to study in every possible detail. If sociological research considers that it must have to address to microscopic structures then it will not be difficult for sociologists to understand various dimensions to a given social reality therefore Merton takes interest in the study of political corruption, machine politics considering these issues\/problems are subjected to complete scientific investigation.<\/span><\/li>\n
- Middle Range theories in sociology advocate that how sociological research facts are important than theories. It gives rise to a situation where facts speak for themselves.<\/strong>\u00a0These theories are small understandable, on controversial universally acceptable conceptual devices coming out of a given empirical situation having capacity to explain same or different types of situations without any possible ambiguities or controversies. For instance reference group theory, concept of in-group or out-group are defined as middle range theories which can provide a guide to sociological research in time and space.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n
Paradigm for functional analysis:<\/span><\/h4>\nMerton presented the steps involved in functional approach in the form of a systematic arrangement known as the functional paradigm. Merton begins his discussion with the review of the mistakes of the early functionalists\u2019 particularly Malinowski and Radcliffe brown. Merton saw functional theorizing as embracing three questionable postulates:<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n\n- The functional unity of social sciences<\/span><\/li>\n
- The functional universality of social items and<\/span><\/li>\n
- The indispensability of functional items of social systems.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
\n- The functional unity postulate<\/strong>: According to Merton, functionalists so far have frequently transformed the hypothesis that social systems may reveal social integration into a necessary condition or need for social integration. While it is difficult to argue that human society does not possess some degree of integration. To assume that a high degree of functional unity must exist in a social system is to negate the possibility of its empirical verification.\u00a0It is due to such a presumption regarding high degree of functional unity that the functional approach has come to acquire a conservative bias and an ideological colouration which can be discovered in the works of functionalists from Durkheim to Talcott Parsons.\u00a0<\/strong>Thus the degree to which functional unity exists in the social system should be a matter subject to empirical investigation.<\/span><\/li>\n
- THE POSTULATE OF FUNCTIONAL UNIVERSALITY:<\/strong><\/strong>\u00a0One result of an emphasis on high degree of functional unity was that the early functionalists assumed that if a social item exists in an on going system, it must therefore have had positive consequences for the integration of the social system. In its most extreme form, Malinowski extended this form of reasoning to the point of asserting that every custom, material object, idea and belief, fulfils some vital function.\u00a0For Merton, however, if an examination of actually existing systems is undertaken, it would be clear that there is a wide range of empirical possibilities.<\/strong><\/span>\n
\n- First<\/strong>, items may not be only positively functional for a system or a part thereof, but can also be dysfunctional for either the part or the whole system.\u00a0Secondly<\/strong>, some consequences, whether functional or dysfunctional are intended and recognized by the systems and thus are\u00a0manifest\u00a0<\/strong>whereas other consequences are not intended or recognized and are therefore\u00a0latent<\/strong>. Functional analysis therefore should arrive at the calculation of a net balance of consequences of the part of the social system under study.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n
- The postulate of functional indispensability:<\/strong><\/strong>\u00a0An automatic consequence of the assumption that \u2018all parts are functional\u2019 is that existence of all parts is essential of the survival of the social system. Therefore, all parts are functionally indispensable. Merton contends emphatically that such conclusions which have been taken for granted by various functionalists are unwarranted as can be seen from empirical evidence. Examination of the empirical world reveals quite clearly that alternative structures can exist to fulfill basically the same perquisites in similar and diverse social systems. This fact leads Merton to postulate the importance in functional analysis of various types of functional alternatives or\u00a0functional equivalents within the social systems. Furthermore in looking for functional alternatives, attention is to be drawn to the questions about the range of the item that would serve as a functional equivalent within the existing structural constraints of the social systems.<\/strong><\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n
Having critically analysed the limitation of functional analysis, Merton suggests the following steps for his functional paradigm. He insists that functional analysis should begin with sheer description of the activities of individuals and groups under study. In describing the pattern of interaction and activity among units under investigation, it will be possible to discern clearly the social items to be subjected to functional analysis. Such descriptions can also provide a major clue to the functions performed by such patterned activity.<\/span><\/p>\nIn order for these functions to become more evident, however additional steps are necessary :<\/mark><\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n\n- The first of these steps is for investigators to indicate the principal alternatives that are excluded by the dominance of a particular pattern.<\/strong>\u00a0Such description of the excluded alternatives provides an indication of the structural context from which an observed pattern first emerges and is now maintained \u2013 thereby offering further clues about the functions or consequences, the item might have for other items and perhaps for the systemic whole.<\/span><\/li>\n
- The second analytical step beyond sheer description involves an assessment of the meaning or mental and emotional significance of the activity for the member of the group<\/strong>. Description of these meanings may offer some indication of the motives behind the activities of the individual involved and thereby shed some tentative light on the Manifest & Latent functions of an activity.<\/span><\/li>\n
- These descriptions require a third analytical step of discerning some array of motives for conformity or for deviation among participants.<\/strong>\u00a0Yet by understanding the configuration of motives for conformity and deviation among actors, an assessment of the psychological needs served or not served by a pattern can be understood \u2013offering an additional clue to the various functions of the pattern under investigation.<\/span><\/li>\n
- Thus a final\u00a0analytical step involves the description of how the patterns under investigation reveal regularities not recognized by participants, but which appear to have consequences for both the individuals involved and the system.<\/strong><\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n
Analysis :<\/span><\/h4>\n\n- Recognition of the elements, important for real function<\/strong>s<\/strong>: First of all the observers should include, only those items in his study, which are functional and necessary for related tasks. Unnecessary elements should not be inducted. He can make out the degree of necessity of elements from his study material\/pattern. Thus in the study of development of rural structure, the level of awareness campaign should be included a long with infrastructures.<\/span><\/li>\n
- Importance of objective consequences:<\/strong>\u00a0According to Merton in a single activity, both functional and dysfunctional elements are present and observer should make a balance between the two on the bases of objectivity. Net balance = function + dysfunction: Eg: television is a main source information and knowledge, apart from one of the best means of entertainment, in a positive way. But negatively, it also causes consumerism, vulgar and violent activities. And in this way, the observer should pay attention on net balance.<\/span><\/li>\n
- Concepts of units under functions:<\/strong><\/strong><\/span>\n
\n- Functions<\/strong>:<\/strong>\u00a0are those which are based on observed consequences and are helpful in making proper adjustment in the system\/associative elements.<\/span><\/li>\n
- Dysfunction:\u00a0<\/strong>Those observed consequences, which lessened the levels of adaptation and adjustment in the system and so are dysfunctional for the system.<\/span><\/li>\n
- Manifest Function<\/strong>: Those observed consequences, which keep proper coordination in the system. And are intended by the system. It means that the knowledge about that activity is equally known by everyone.<\/span><\/li>\n
- Latent:\u00a0<\/strong>Such functions are unintended and also they are not given acceptance in the system. It means, people hardly acknowledge such activities. Basically, they are the consequences of manifest functions.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n
<\/span>Latent and Manifest Functions<\/mark><\/strong>:<\/span><\/span><\/h2>\nAccording to Robert Merton\u00a0manifest functions are those that are intended and recognized. These are functions which people assume and expect the institutions to fulfil.<\/strong>\u00a0For example schools are expected to educate the children in the knowledge and skills that they need. The manifest functions are obvious, admitted and generally applauded. ,,,,,,,,,,,,,Latent functions are unrecognized and unintended functions. These are the unforeseen consequences of institutions.<\/strong>\u00a0For example schools not only educate young they also provide mass entertainment. Latent functions of an institution or partial structure may support the manifest functions for example the latent functions of religious institutions in the modern society include offering recreational activities and courtship opportunities to young people. Latent functions may be irrelevant to manifest functions for example the big functions organized by schools may not impact the purpose of the education. Latent functions may even undermine manifest functions. For example the manifest function of civil service regulations is to secure a competent dedicated staff of civil servants to make government more efficient. But the civil service system may have the latent function of establishing more rigid bureaucracy. The distinction between manifest and latent functions is essentially relative and not absolute. A function may appear to be manifest for some in the social system and latent for others.<\/span><\/p>\nFor Merton, the difference between Manifest and Latent function is so important that it reveals so many hidden elements in the system. Merton has presented the difference in the following way:<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n\n- Functional activities become rational:\u00a0<\/strong>To explain it Merton has presented an example of rain ceremony among American Hopi Indian. In this ceremony, people gather around one place and sprinkle water on the ground with the hope that clouds would imitate such activity and rain will occur. This seems to be an irrational act at the first glance, but Merton\u2019s presents its another picture that the gathered, people at one place, enhance their group identity, unity and solidarity. This analysis shows that, an irrational activity his become rational and meaningful.<\/span><\/li>\n
- Enhances social knowledge: <\/strong><\/strong>To explain it Veblen\u2019s theory of leisure class can be presented here. In which he has talked about conspicuous consumption people purchase commodities further comfortable life but in a single household, the presence of plenty of such commodities, shows conspicuous consumption. Through which show off their status in society. Apart from it, the rate of inflation is affected with such activities, which is harmful for the economy of the country. Interestingly, a sociologist can provide such kind of knowledge, which can be used by the government. For e.g. Singapore government has provided, very nice facility for transportation. But despite, if someone wants to purchase a car, then, he will have to pay the double price.<\/span><\/li>\n
- Open new vistas for research:<\/strong><\/strong>\u00a0A sociologist searches hidden consequences in any manifest functions and in this way provides new ways for researches, not only to himself, but also is others which could be definitely, functional and effective for society, in future.<\/span><\/li>\n
- Reveals the institutional faults by something illegal activities.\u00a0<\/strong>Merton has explained it with example of American political system. America is a democratic country in which people are given equal opportunity, but there are many, deprived from such opportunities and so they get a low level of lifestyle; but there is one more group which Merton calls political machine which works illegally i.e.-they pilferage smuggle etc and distribute the accumulated money in the group, through which basic needs of those people are fulfilled. In this way, people become capable to achieve opportunities.<\/span><\/li>\n
- Merton says that where American democracy failed to perform, political machine accomplishes it.<\/strong>\u00a0The real consequences of such activity are that the democratic government should take a lesson from them and work for the development of the deprived people. This would be highly functional for the society.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n
Limination of Merton\u2019s theory of functionalism :<\/span><\/h3>\n\n- Lack of rationality:\u00a0<\/strong>Merton has not told what is functional is dysfunctional specially for a modern society. It is a difficult question not resolved by Merton. Apart from it, the relevancy of objective consequence is also questionable became, their also it is difficult to tell rationally, to what extent any activity is functional of dysfunctional.<\/span><\/li>\n
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