\n\n<\/span>Science Scientific Method and Critique<\/span><\/span><\/h2>\n\n- \n
Science is \u201ca systematized body of knowledge\u201d. An essential feature of scientific knowledge is that it is based upon \u2018sensory observation or empirical data\u2019<\/strong>. Next, the information acquired through sensory observation has been made meaningful and manageable. Thus science tries to arrive at\u00a0\u2018law like explanatory generalizations\u2019.\u00a0<\/strong>For the purpose of acquiring empirical data and for processing them into law like statements science relies on a\u00a0\u2018method\u2019.<\/strong>\u00a0The basic elements of\u00a0Scientific method<\/strong>\u00a0are:<\/span><\/p>\n\n- Observation of an event that stimulates thinking.<\/span><\/li>\n
- Defining or classifying the terms or events being considered.<\/span><\/li>\n
- Formulating the research issue or hypothesis.<\/span><\/li>\n
- Generating a theory or proposition \u2013 a general statement that serves as a potential answer to the research question.<\/span><\/li>\n
- Creating a research design in order to test whether the theory or proposition is valid.<\/span><\/li>\n
- Collecting data-working through the research design to make observations.<\/span><\/li>\n
- Analyzing the data<\/span><\/li>\n
- Making conclusions and evaluating the theory<\/span>
\n![\"Science](\"https:\/\/triumphias.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/03\/The_Scientific_Method.svg-1-1024x973-1-150x143.png\") <\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\nThe earliest sciences to grow were physical and natural sciences.<\/strong>\u00a0Due to their success in exploring the physical and natural world and in being able to arrive at near universal laws, they came to be viewed as models for other sciences to emulate.<\/span><\/p>\nPhysical and natural sciences try to rely on measurement and quantification of data. Quantification brings in exactitude and makes precise comparisons possible<\/strong>. Sociology, being a late comer was also influenced and developed under the shadow of these positive sciences. Early sociologists conceived Sociology as a positive science. For example, influenced by biology,\u00a0Herbert Spencer viewed society as an organism like entity; a unified whole made up of interconnected parts.<\/strong>\u00a0He advocated methods of positive sciences to be used for the study of social phenomena.<\/span><\/p>\nEven Durkheim regarded Sociology to be a positive science.<\/strong>\u00a0According to him social facts constitute the subject matter of Sociology. He defined social facts in such a way that they were amenable to sensory observation and exploratory generalization about them could be made by using positive science methods. Subsequently, Radcliffe-Brown, Malinowski and even Parsons continue to view Sociology as a positive science and so did most of the Chicago School sociologists.<\/span><\/p>\n\u201cScientific Method is a systematic and objective attempt to study a problem for the purpose of deriving general principles\u201d. Robert Burns\u00a0<\/strong>describes it as \u201ca systematic investigation to find solutions to a problem\u201d. The investigation is guided by previously collected information. Man\u2019s knowledge grows by studying what is already known and revising past knowledge in the light of new findings.<\/span><\/p>\n\n- While talking of research, sometimes we talk of empirical (scientific) research and sometimes of library research, historical research, social research, and so on.\u00a0Empirical research involves observation of facts or interaction with people.\u00a0<\/strong>Library research is done in library situation. Historical research is the study of history (e.g., functioning of caste system in different periods of history) or biographical research (e.g., research into the life and times of Mahatma Gandhi). Social research is a research that focuses on the study of human groups or the processes of social interaction. Scientific research is building of knowledge through collection of empirically verifiable facts. The term \u2018verifiable\u2019 here mans \u201cwhich can be checked by others for accuracy\u201d<\/span><\/li>\n
- Royce A. Singleton and Bruce C. Straits<\/strong>\u00a0have said that\u00a0\u201cscientific social research consists of the process of formulating and seeking answers to questions about the social world\u201d<\/strong>. For example,\u00a0why do husbands batter their wives? Why do people take drugs? What are the consequences of population explosion? And so on. Similarly, the issues of inquiry may be of rural poverty, urban slums, youth crime, political corruption, exploitation of the weak, environmental pollution, and the like.<\/strong>\u00a0To answer these questions, social scientists have devised basic guidelines, principles and techniques. Scientific sociological research, broadly speaking, is concerned with discovering, organizing and developing systematic reliable knowledge about society or social life, social action, social behaviour, social relations, social groups (like families, castes, tribes, communities, etc.), social organizations (like social, religious, political, business, etc.), and social systems and social structures.<\/span><\/li>\n
- Theodorson and Theodorson have maintained that scientific method is \u201cbuilding of a body of scientific knowledge through observation, experimentation, generalization and verification\u201d.<\/strong>\u00a0Their contention is that scientific inquiry develops knowledge experienced through the senses, i.e., which is based on empirical evidence.\u00a0According to Manheim<\/strong>, scientific research involves a method characterized by objectivity, accuracy and systematization. Objectivity eliminates biases in fact-collection and interpretation: Accuracy makes sure that things are exactly as described. Systematization aims at consistency and comprehension.<\/span><\/li>\n
- The assumption is that any statement pertaining to\u00a0any social phenomenon made on the basis of scientific inquiry can be accepted as true and meaningful, if it is empirically verifiable.<\/strong>\u00a0Thus, individual\u2019s idiosyncratic observations not shared by all scientists are not regarded as \u2018scientific facts\u2019.\u00a0For example<\/strong>, a statement that \u201cskilled workers are more undisciplined than non-skilled workers\u201d lacks empirical validity; hence no one will accept it as a \u2018scientific fact\u2019. But, if a statement is given that \u201cthe important cause of child\u2019s delinquent behaviour is a disorganized family\u201d, it will be taken as scientific, considering it a proposition which has been found valid in a number of studies. \u201cAbout whom\u201d the facts will be collected in a scientific inquiry will depend upon the \u2018focus of the discipline\u2019 to which the researcher belongs. If the researcher is a sociologist, he will collect facts about social phenomena or social world.<\/span><\/li>\n
- Although scientific research method depends on the collection of empirical facts, yet facts alone do not constitute a science<\/strong>.\u00a0For meaningful understanding facts must be ordered in some fashion, analyzed, generalized, and related to other facts. Thus, theory construction is a vital part of the scientific inquiry. <\/strong>Since facts collected and findings evolved through the scientific method are interrelated with the previous findings of other scholars or earlier theories,\u00a0scientific knowledge is a cumulative process.<\/strong><\/span><\/li>\n
- The scientific method could either be an inductive method or the deductive method. Inductive method\u00a0<\/strong>involves establishing generalizations, i.e., building generalizations inferred from specific facts, or drawing particular principles from general instances, while\u00a0Deductive method\u00a0<\/strong>involves testing generalizations, i.e., it is the process of reasoning from general principles to particular instances.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
Characteristics of Scientific Research<\/span><\/h3>\nHorton and Hunt<\/strong>\u00a0have given following characteristics of scientific method :<\/span><\/p>\n\n- Verifiable evidence,<\/strong>\u00a0i.e., factual observations which other observers can see and check.<\/span><\/li>\n
- Accuracy,<\/strong>\u00a0i.e., describing what really exists. It means truth or correctness of a statement or describing things exactly as they are and avoiding jumping to unwarranted conclusions either by exaggeration or fantasizing.<\/span><\/li>\n
- Precision,<\/strong>\u00a0i.e., making it as exact as necessary, or giving exact number or measurement. Instead of saying, \u201cI interviewed a large number of people\u201d, one says, \u201cI interviewed 493 persons\u201d. Instead of saying, \u201cmost of the people were against family planning\u201d, one says, \u201cseventy-two per cent people were against family planning\u201d. Thus, in scientific precision, one avoids colorful literature and vague meanings. How much precision is needed in social science will depend upon what the situation requires.<\/span><\/li>\n
- Systematization,<\/strong>\u00a0i.e., attempting to find all the relevant data, or collecting data in a systematic and organized way so that the conclusions drawn are reliable. Data based on casual recollections are generally incomplete and give unreliable judgments and conclusions.<\/span><\/li>\n
- Objectivity,<\/strong>\u00a0i.e., being free from all biases and vested interests. It means, observation is unaffected by the observer\u2019s values, beliefs and preferences to the extent possible and he is able to see and accept facts as they are, not as he might wish them to be. The researcher remains detached from his emotions, prejudices and needs, and guards his biases.<\/span><\/li>\n
- Recording<\/strong>, i.e., jotting down complete details as quickly as possible. Since human memory is falliable, all data collected are recorded. Researcher will not depend on the recalled facts but will analyse the problem on the basis of the recorded data. Conclusions based on recalled unrecorded data are not trust worthy.<\/span><\/li>\n
- Controlling conditions,<\/strong>\u00a0i.e., controlling all variables except one and then attempting to examine what happens when that variable is varied. This is the basic technique in all scientific experimentation-allowing one variable to vary while holding all other variables constant. Unless all variables except one have been controlled, we cannot be sure which variable has produced the results. Though a physical scientist is able to control as many variables as he wishes in an experiment he conducts in the laboratory but a social scientist cannot control all variables as he wishes. He functions under many constraints.<\/span><\/li>\n
- Training investigators,\u00a0<\/strong>i.e., imparting necessary knowledge to investigators to make them understand what to look for, how to interpret it and avoid inaccurate data collection. When some remarkable observations are reported, the scientist first tries to know what is the observer\u2019s level of education, training and sophistication. Does he really understand facts he reports? The scientists are always impressed by authenticated reports.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n
Major Steps in Scientific Research<\/span><\/h3>\nAccording to\u00a0Theodorson and Theodorson, scientific method<\/strong>\u00a0involves the following steps :<\/span><\/p>\n\n- The problem is defined.<\/strong><\/span><\/li>\n
- The problem is\u00a0stated in terms of a particular theoretical framework\u00a0<\/strong>and related to relevant findings of previous research.<\/span><\/li>\n
- A\u00a0hypothesis\u00a0<\/strong>(or hypotheses) relating to the problem is devised, utilizing previously accepted theoretical principles.<\/span><\/li>\n
- The\u00a0procedure to be\u00a0<\/strong>used in\u00a0gathering data to test the hypothesis<\/strong>\u00a0is determined.<\/span><\/li>\n
- The data regathered.<\/strong><\/span><\/li>\n
- The data are analysed to determine if the\u00a0hypothesis\u00a0<\/strong>is verified or rejected.<\/span><\/li>\n
- Finally,\u00a0The conclusions of the study are related to the original body of theory,\u00a0<\/strong>which is modified<\/span>
\nin accordance with the new findings.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\nKenneth D. Baily has delineated five stages of social research :<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n\n- Choosing the\u00a0research problem and stating the hypotheses;<\/strong><\/span><\/li>\n
- Formulating\u00a0the research design;<\/strong><\/span><\/li>\n
- Gathering\u00a0the data;<\/strong><\/span><\/li>\n
- Analyzing\u00a0the data; and<\/strong><\/span><\/li>\n
- Interpreting the\u00a0results so as to test the hypotheses<\/strong><\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n
Horton and Hunt\u00a0<\/strong>have pointed out\u00a0eight steps<\/strong>\u00a0in scientific\u00a0research or scientific method of investigation:<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n\n- Define the problem,\u00a0<\/strong>which is worth studying through the methods of science.<\/span><\/li>\n
|
![\"GS](\"https:\/\/triumphias.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/12\/Blog-150x150.jpeg\")
<\/p>\n