Over-reliance on nitrogen-based fertilizers, combined with inadequate use of phosphorus, potassium, micronutrients, and organic manure, has resulted in declining soil productivity. This imbalance not only affects crop yields but also depletes soil fertility over time.

As India strives to secure food production for its growing population, balanced nutrient management and policy reforms are urgently needed to restore soil health and sustain agricultural productivity.

The Role of Soil in Sustaining India’s Agricultural Prosperity

1. Foundation of Food Security and Crop Productivity

Soil serves as the primary medium for plant growth, directly impacting crop yields, nutrient absorption, and overall agricultural output. The fertility of Indian soils supports the production of staple crops such as rice, wheat, and pulses, ensuring food security for 1.4 billion people.

Diverse soil types, including alluvial soil in the Indo-Gangetic plains and black soil in Maharashtra, enable varied cropping patterns across the country. According to the FAO, 95% of global food production depends on soil, making its conservation vital for India’s agricultural sustainability.

In 2022-23, India recorded an all-time high food grain production of 329.7 million tonnes, with oilseed production reaching 41.4 million tonnes, underscoring the significance of fertile soil in boosting agricultural output.

2. Nutrient Cycling and Soil Microbial Health

Healthy soil acts as a natural nutrient reservoir, supplying essential elements like nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium for plant growth. Soil microbes decompose organic matter, fix atmospheric nitrogen, and enhance fertility, playing a crucial role in sustaining agricultural ecosystems.

India’s organic farming movement, incorporating techniques like vermiculture and biofertilizers, relies on nutrient-rich soils. Without effective nutrient cycling, agricultural productivity declines, increasing reliance on chemical fertilizers.

3. Water Retention and Drought Resilience

Soil functions as a natural sponge, regulating water infiltration, retention, and drainage to ensure stable crop growth. High organic matter content improves water-holding capacity, reducing irrigation demand and making crops more resilient to erratic monsoons.

In drought-prone regions like Rajasthan and Bundelkhand, soil moisture conservation techniques such as mulching and cover cropping help maintain agricultural productivity. Meanwhile, well-structured soils prevent waterlogging and root diseases in high-rainfall areas.

4. Climate Change Mitigation and Carbon Sequestration

Soil plays a key role in carbon sequestration, absorbing and storing carbon to help mitigate climate change impacts on agriculture. Carbon-rich soils stabilize temperatures and prevent desertification.

Adopting agroforestry and conservation agriculture enhances soil carbon storage, reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Research suggests that agricultural soils have the potential to absorb 3–8 gigatons of CO₂ annually for 20–30 years, contributing to climate stabilization.

5. Biodiversity Conservation and Natural Pest Control

Healthy soils support a diverse ecosystem of microorganisms, fungi, and insects that contribute to natural pest control. Organisms like earthworms and mycorrhizal fungi enhance soil aeration and nutrient absorption.

A balanced soil ecosystem reduces reliance on chemical pesticides, making agriculture more sustainable and cost-effective. Recent studies indicate that farms with high soil biodiversity experience fewer pest outbreaks compared to degraded soils.

6. Economic Stability and Rural Livelihoods

Soil fertility is directly linked to farm income, as healthier soils lead to higher yields and better market prices. With nearly two-thirds of India’s population dependent on agriculture, soil health plays a critical role in economic stability and employment.

Fertile soils lower input costs by reducing dependence on fertilizers and pesticides, improving farmers’ profit margins. Additionally, soil-based agro-industries, such as organic farming and compost production, create livelihood opportunities in rural India.

Key Factors Contributing to India’s Soil Health Crisis

1. Unsustainable Agricultural Practices

The excessive use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and monocropping has severely degraded soil fertility, leading to nutrient imbalances. Intensive farming in states like Punjab and Haryana, driven by MSP-backed wheat-rice cycles, has resulted in severe soil depletion.

Additionally, over-tillage and deep plowing disrupt soil structure, reducing its capacity to retain water and nutrients. According to the 2022 State of India’s Environment Report, 30% of India’s land is facing degradation.

2. Declining Organic Carbon and Soil Microbial Life

Soil organic carbon (SOC) is essential for maintaining fertility, yet rapid depletion due to insufficient organic matter incorporation has worsened soil conditions. The widespread burning of crop residues in the Indo-Gangetic belt eliminates organic matter instead of replenishing soil nutrients.

Over-reliance on synthetic fertilizers disrupts microbial ecosystems, hindering nutrient cycling. Additionally, deforestation and urbanization further strip the soil of its natural organic content.

• India’s SOC content has dropped from 1% to 0.3% over the past 70 years.
• In Punjab, only 6.9% of soils had high organic carbon content, and this percentage declined further in 2024-25.

3. Soil Erosion and Desertification

Deforestation, overgrazing, and poor water management have accelerated soil erosion and land degradation, particularly in semi-arid regions. Additionally, unsustainable mining and industrial activities strip away topsoil, reducing the land’s agricultural potential.

According to the Desertification and Land Degradation Atlas of India (SAC 2021), 97.85 million hectares of land—29.77% of India’s total geographical area—are degraded.

4. Over-Extraction and Salinization Due to Poor Irrigation Practices

Unscientific irrigation methods, including excessive groundwater extraction and flood irrigation, have led to soil salinity, alkalinity, and waterlogging.

• In Punjab and Haryana, continuous irrigation without proper drainage has caused secondary salinization.
• Canal irrigation, when mismanaged, leads to waterlogging, reducing soil aeration and microbial activity.
• In 2022, India’s total annual groundwater extraction was estimated at 239.16 bcm, with 87% used for agriculture.
• 6.7 million hectares (Mha) of India’s land is salt-affected, resulting in a crop loss of 11.18 million tonnes, valued at ₹150.17 billion.

5. Climate Change and Extreme Weather Events

Unpredictable weather patterns, including erratic monsoons and rising temperatures, are accelerating soil degradation.

• Intense rainfall leads to topsoil erosion and nutrient depletion.
• Rising temperatures accelerate soil carbon loss, threatening long-term agricultural sustainability.
• Due to climate change, high to very high soil erosion zones are projected to rise from 35.3% to 40.3% by the end of the century.
• The 2023 Himachal Pradesh floods caused significant topsoil loss in agricultural areas.

6. Pollution from Industrial and Urban Waste

The unchecked dumping of heavy metals, industrial effluents, and plastic waste has resulted in the toxic contamination of agricultural soils.

• In peri-urban areas, untreated sewage sludge and landfill leachates degrade soil structure and introduce hazardous chemicals.
• Groundwater pollution from landfills and industrial waste further alters soil chemistry.
• Indian farmlands have high levels of heavy metal contamination, including lead, cadmium, and arsenic.

7. Lack of Effective Policy Implementation and Awareness

Despite initiatives like the Soil Health Card (SHC) program, the adoption of sustainable practices remains low due to limited farmer awareness and inadequate follow-up.

• In 2024, one-ninth of India’s total agricultural budget was allocated to fertilizer subsidies.
• Many farmers lack access to real-time soil quality data, limiting their ability to optimize fertilizer use.
• The continued subsidization of urea has encouraged its overuse, despite recommendations for balanced fertilization.
• The existing NPK ratio of 7.7:3.1:1 significantly deviates from the ideal 4:2:1, highlighting a severe nutrient imbalance.

8. Decline of Traditional Agroecological Practices

Traditional organic farming techniques such as green manure, crop rotation, and agroforestry have diminished due to the push for high-yield, chemical-dependent crops.

• Indigenous soil management methods, such as Zaï pits in Rajasthan and vermiculture in the Northeast, are being replaced by mechanized, intensive farming.
• The marginalization of indigenous knowledge—particularly among small and tribal farmers—has weakened resilience to soil degradation.

9. Impact of Genetically Modified (GM) Crops and High-Yield Varieties (HYVs)

The introduction of GM crops and HYVs has intensified nutrient depletion, as these crops demand higher fertilizer inputs.

• Bt cotton cultivation has been linked to declining soil biodiversity in Maharashtra and Telangana.
• The widespread adoption of HYVs has led to the loss of traditional crop varieties, which are often better suited for maintaining soil structure and fertility.

Measures India Can Adopt for Soil Health Restoration and Conservation

1. Promoting Integrated Nutrient Management (INM) for Balanced Fertilization

India needs to transition from excessive chemical fertilizer use to Integrated Nutrient Management (INM), which combines organic manure, biofertilizers, and judicious synthetic inputs.

• Encouraging nano urea and organic alternatives can help curb fertilizer overuse.
• Programs like Soil Health Cards (SHC) and Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY) should be integrated to promote biofertilizer adoption.
• Establishing large-scale composting units in rural areas can improve organic carbon levels in degraded soils.

2. Expanding Agroforestry and Perennial Crop Systems

Integrating trees with agriculture under the National Agroforestry Policy (NAP) enhances soil organic carbon, prevents erosion, and increases farm income.

• Crops such as alley-cropped millets and legumes can rejuvenate degraded lands while maintaining productivity.
• Agroforestry, already popular in Karnataka and Odisha, should be expanded nationwide.
• Linking Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) with soil conservation efforts can support large-scale afforestation on degraded farmland.

3. Encouraging Zero-Tillage and Conservation Agriculture

Adopting zero-tillage farming minimizes soil erosion, enhances microbial activity, and conserves moisture, particularly in wheat-rice cropping systems.

• Happy Seeder technology in Punjab and Haryana has effectively reduced stubble burning while improving soil health.
• The Direct Seeded Rice (DSR) method in paddy farming lowers groundwater usage and preserves soil structure.
• Conservation agriculture, supported by the National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA), should be expanded to semi-arid regions.
• Brazil’s no-till soybean farming model can be adapted for India’s pulses and cereals.

4. Restoring Degraded Lands Through Agroecological Approaches

Soil restoration must adopt agroecological principles that integrate natural ecosystems to improve soil structure and fertility.

• Intercropping and crop rotation with nitrogen-fixing plants like pulses and legumes can naturally replenish soil nutrients.
• Reviving traditional techniques like Zaï pits in Rajasthan can reverse soil erosion effectively.
• These approaches should be mainstreamed through the Watershed Development Component (WDC-PMKSY) under Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY).

5. Implementing Controlled Irrigation and Preventing Salinization

Over-irrigation has caused soil salinity and waterlogging in the Indo-Gangetic plains. Transitioning to drip and sprinkler irrigation can mitigate these effects.

• Micro-irrigation techniques under PMKSY should be promoted on a wider scale to conserve soil moisture and reduce erosion.
• Conjunctive use of rainwater harvesting and surface water irrigation can prevent groundwater depletion.
• Cultivating salt-tolerant crop varieties, as practiced in coastal Gujarat, can restore productivity in saline-affected areas.

6. Strengthening Soil Biodiversity and Microbial Rejuvenation

Enhancing soil microbial diversity through bioinoculants, vermiculture, and mycorrhizal fungi can improve soil fertility and plant resilience.

• Integrated Farming Systems (IFS), which combine livestock, cropping, and aquaculture, ensure natural nutrient cycling.
• Pusa Bio-Decomposer (an IARI innovation) should be widely adopted to promote organic residue recycling.
• Natural farming techniques, such as Fukuoka’s method, have shown promising results in improving soil health.

7. Combating Soil Erosion Through Terracing and Grassland Regeneration

Hilly and semi-arid regions require terracing, check dams, and vegetative barriers to prevent topsoil loss.

• Community-led watershed management, like in Ralegan Siddhi, Maharashtra, can help restore eroded landscapes.
• Grassland restoration projects, such as those in Gujarat’s Banni Grasslands, offer a model for reviving degraded pastures.
• Compensatory Afforestation (CAMPA funds) should be linked with soil conservation initiatives for sustainable land management.

8. Strengthening Policy Implementation and Farmer Awareness

Building farmer capacity through Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs) and Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs) must be prioritized.

• Linking the Soil Health Card Scheme with Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT) can ensure customized fertilizer application for individual farms.
• The National Project on Soil Health and Fertility, a sub-scheme under NMSA, should coordinate efforts at both the state and central levels.

9. Preventing Industrial and Urban Soil Pollution

Unchecked dumping of industrial effluents and urban waste has caused toxic contamination of agricultural soils, particularly near cities.

• Strict soil quality monitoring under CPCB guidelines can prevent heavy metal accumulation.
• Phytoremediation—using plants to absorb toxins—can help rehabilitate contaminated soils in peri-urban areas.
• Tamil Nadu’s biochar projects and Kolkata’s East Kolkata Wetlands-based agriculture demonstrate how urban waste can be transformed into soil-enriching resources.
• Linking the Smart Cities Mission with urban soil restoration projects can promote sustainable urban farming.

10. Encouraging Farmers to Adopt Regenerative and Natural Farming

Regenerative farming techniques, such as Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF) and permaculture, can enhance soil health while reducing dependency on external inputs.

• Andhra Pradesh’s success in scaling regenerative practices demonstrates the feasibility of widespread adoption.
• Cover cropping and mulching can improve soil structure and prevent nutrient depletion.
• Policy incentives under the National Mission for Organic Farming (NMOF) should be expanded to encourage more farmers to adopt sustainable practices.

Conclusion

India’s soil health can be revitalized through integrated nutrient management, agroforestry, conservation agriculture, controlled irrigation, soil biodiversity enhancement, and policy reforms. Implementing these measures will ensure long-term agricultural sustainability, environmental resilience, and food security.