Introduction

The feminization of poverty refers to the phenomenon where women represent disproportionate percentages of the world’s poor. Coined in the late 20th century, this term captures how poverty affects women more severely due to a combination of structural inequalities, discriminatory socio-economic practices, and cultural norms. In India, the issue is deeply intertwined with caste, class, patriarchy, and the informal labour economy.

Defining the Feminization of Poverty

The term “feminization of poverty” highlights the increasing concentration of poverty among women, especially female-headed households. It includes:

• Higher incidence of poverty among women compared to men.
• Lower access to income, education, healthcare, and land ownership.
• Structural and cultural inequalities that perpetuate women’s economic dependency.

UN Women defines feminization of poverty as a phenomenon where “women experience poverty in unique and disproportionate ways, often due to unequal access to resources, income, education, and decision-making power.”

Causes of Feminization of Poverty in India

1. Patriarchal Social Structures: Indian society is deeply patriarchal, limiting women’s autonomy and access to resources. The inheritance laws, though improved over time, are still bypassed in rural India. Land and property ownership is still largely male-dominated, leaving women economically dependent.
2. Gendered Labour Market: Most women work in the informal sector as agricultural labourers, domestic help, or self-employed vendors. These jobs offer low wages, no job security, and no social security benefits, contributing to working poverty. According to the Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS), only 19% of women in India were part of the formal workforce in 2023.
3. Unpaid Care Work: Women spend significantly more time than men in unpaid care and domestic responsibilities. According to the National Sample Survey (2019), women spend nearly five times more time on unpaid care work than men. This limits their time and energy for paid employment or skill-building activities.
4. Educational and Skill Disparities: Although literacy among women has improved, the dropout rate among girls is still high due to early marriage, safety concerns, and poverty. Lack of vocational training further limits their chances of upward mobility.
5. Health Disparities: Malnutrition, limited access to reproductive healthcare, and gender bias in healthcare allocation affect women disproportionately. Poor health further reduces their economic productivity and makes them more vulnerable to poverty.
6. Female-Headed Households: With rising rates of migration, divorce, and widowhood, female-headed households are increasing. These households often lack male earning members and face greater economic hardship due to limited access to credit and state support.

Sociological Theories and Thinkers

1. Amartya Sen’s Capability Approach emphasized the idea that poverty should be seen as deprivation of capabilities, not just income. Women, especially in rural areas, often lack the freedom to choose educational, occupational, or reproductive options, thus perpetuating poverty.
2. Sylvia Walby’s Theory of Patriarchy identifies multiple structures of patriarchy, such as household, paid work, and state institutions. These restrict women’s access to power and resources, leading to long-term impoverishment.
3. According to Pierre Bourdieu, Women, especially from lower castes or rural areas, lack the cultural capital required to navigate state institutions, legal systems, or job markets, reinforcing their marginalization.
4. Kimberlé Crenshaw’s Intersectionality explains how caste, class, gender, and religion intersect to multiply the disadvantages experienced by women. For instance, Dalit or tribal women face a triple burden.

Feminization of Poverty:

Source: PLFS 2023–24, NFHS-5, World Bank, ILO Reports

Case Studies

1. Self-Help Groups (SHGs) – A Partial Solution

Programs like Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana – NRLM aim to empower women economically. However, without structural reform and sustained institutional support, SHGs have limited success in lifting women out of long-term poverty.

2. Widows in Vrindavan

Thousands of widows live in poverty and exclusion in Vrindavan. Abandoned by families, they lack access to pensions, healthcare, and housing, highlighting the gendered nature of old-age poverty.

3. Domestic Workers in Urban India

Women working as maids face long hours, low pay, harassment, and zero social security. Despite being employed, their poverty remains unaltered, revealing the paradox of working poor.

Feminist Critique of Development Models

Mainstream development often treats households as monolithic units, ignoring intra-household inequalities. Feminist economists like Naila Kabeer argue that poverty analysis must consider who within the household is poor, rather than just measuring per capita income.

Government Policies:

Positive Interventions

• PM Awas Yojana: Prioritizes joint ownership of houses in the name of women.
• Ladli Scheme / Kanya Sumangala Yojana: Incentivize girl child education.
• Janani Suraksha Yojana / PM Matru Vandana Yojana: Improve maternal healthcare.
• Skill India Mission: Targets women for upskilling.

Gaps and Challenges

• Poor implementation in rural and tribal areas
• Digital divide restricts access to online benefit platforms
• Exclusion errors in schemes due to lack of documentation
• Social stigma and mobility restrictions

Sociological Implications

• Social Reproduction of Poverty: Gender-based poverty is passed on through generations when daughters inherit the same cultural capital and economic vulnerabilities.
• Weakening of Social Solidarity: Discrimination against women erodes the collective moral fabric of society.
• Undermining Human Development: Women’s poverty hampers national progress on education, health, and economy.
• Invisible Labour: Unpaid domestic and caregiving roles go unrecognized in GDP measurements, skewing policymaking.

Recommendations

1. Gender-Sensitive Budgeting to ensure targeted spending.
2. Asset Redistribution – promote women’s land, property, and digital ownership.
3. Universal Basic Services – affordable health, education, child-care facilities.
4. Social Security for Informal Workers.
5. Awareness and Legal Literacy for women, especially in rural and tribal areas.
6. Inclusion of women in policy design to ensure real needs are addressed.

Conclusion

The feminization of poverty is not merely an economic issue but a sociological one that reflects deep-rooted gender inequalities in access, opportunity, and dignity. For India to achieve inclusive development, addressing the structural causes of women’s poverty is imperative. As Amartya Sen rightly noted, “Empowering women is key to social change.”

Previous Year Questions

Paper I

• Explain the concept of feminization of poverty. What are the socio-economic factors contributing to it in India? (2021)
• Discuss the relationship between gender, patriarchy and poverty. (2020)

Paper II

• Critically examine the gendered nature of labour in India. (2017, Paper II)
• Discuss the role of Self-Help Groups (SHGs) in empowering rural women in India. (2015)